MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 



R.M. STARBUCK 





Class TV\UjL^ 

Book__ 



_si. 



Copyright N°. 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



MODERN PLUMBING 
ILLUSTRATED 



Modern Plumbing 
illustrated 



A COMPREHENSIVE AND THOROUGHLY 

PRACTICAL WORK ON THE MODERN 

AND MOST APPROVED METHODS 

OF PLUMBING CONSTRUCTION 

THE STANDARD WORK FOR PLUMBERS, ARCHITECTS, 

BUILDERS, PROPERTY OWNERS, AND FOR BOARDS 

OF HEALTH AND PLUMBING EXAMINERS 



By R. M. STARBUCK 

AUTHOR OF "QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS ON THE PRACTICE AND THEORY OF 
SANITARY PLUMBING," " QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS ON THE PRACTICE AND 
THEORY OF STEAM AND HOT WATER HEATING," " HOT WATER CIRCU- 
LATION ILLUSTRATED," " EXAMINATION CHARTS FOR BOARDS OF 
HEALTH," "EXAMINATION CHARTS FOR PLUMBERS* UNIONS," 
"THE STARBUCK PLUMBER'S ESTIMATE BOOK," ETC. 




FULLY ILLUSTRATED BY FIFTY-FIVE DETAILED PLATES 
MADE EXPRESSLY BY THE AUTHOR FOR THIS WORK 









NEW YORK 




THE 


NORMAN 


W. 


HENLEY 

132 NASSAU 
1907 


PUBLISHING 

STREET 


COMPANY 




LIBRARY of OONQRESS 
Tw« OoDiM Received 
JAN 9 1907 

XOoDyrleiit Entiy 

CLASS A XXcANo. 

/ ^/ 7cJ^. 

oopy^B. 



A^ 



Copyright, 1906, by R. M. Starbuck 



COMPOSITION, ELECTROTYPING, PRINTING, AND 
BINDING BY TROW DIRECTORY, PRINTING AND 
BOOKBINDING COMPANY, NEW YORK, U. S. A. 



\ 



PREFACE 

There is possibly no branch of construction work which has 
undergone within the same given time such great changes of a far-' 
reaching nature as plumbing construction. These changes look to 
the betterment of sanitary conditions, and are going on continually. 
As a consequence of all this, any work relating to plumbing con- 
struction to be of real value to the reader must deal with modern 
methods and appliances, for the old-time construction called for such 
entirely different methods, materials, and appliances, that the trade 
of the younger plumber of to-day has little in common with the trade 
which the older school of plumbers learned in their younger days. 

The practice of filling books on plumbing with instructions and 
historical data concerning old-time plumbing construction has no 
features to recommend it, and the author, believing in the truth of 
this statement, has avoided the employment of all such material. The 
ambitious plumber of to-day, if he is to keep abreast of the times in 
his chosen line of work, cannot afford to waste much time in gaining 
knowledge of an obsolete nature. 

Many factors have taken part in the advancement of sanitary 
construction. 

The good features that have arisen in plumbing construction are 
not to be credited to any one influence, but to many and varied influ- 
ences. In the first place, the people of this country have been edu- 
cated to demand and to expect the best possible living conditions, 
and the result is that the standard is constantly being raised. The 
public years ago began to demand more efficient regulation of plumb- 
ing construction in towns and cities, and the results arising from this 
demand and its fulfillment have been of the best. Municipal plumbing 
ordinances are constantly being revised or added to in the effort to 
provide the public with the most perfect sanitary conditions that are 
to be obtained. Competition is another factor which has brought 
results. 

Manufacturers everywhere have striven to improve their goods, 
and the advancement which they have made in all lines in recent years 



8 PREFACE 

is truly wonderful. The plumber whose duty it is to execute work 
of construction has been most influential in bringing about changed 
conditions. It is he who is better able than others to observe the 
good points of different methods and devices, and their deficiencies, 
and to him is due the credit of very many of the improvements in the 
construction of the plumbing system which the public now enjoys. 

So far as it is within his power the author has endeavored to 
acquaint his readers with the improvements that have been effected 
in the many dift'erent directions. 

The work is designed to cover the entire field of plumbing as 
far as possible. It takes up not only plumbing as practiced in towns 
and cities under strict plumbing regulations, but plumbing construc- 
tion under conditions obtaining in country districts, where the prob- 
lems which arise are often of an entirelv different nature, and where 
there is not in existence any public regulation of sanitary work. 

The subjects considered cover a variety of lines of work, includ- 
ing fixture work in detail, the construction of the drainage and vent 
systems in detail, and complete plumbing systems of buildings of 
various kinds. 

The work is designed essentially to cover subjects pertaining to 
drainage alone, but it is clear that in many instances the subject of 
water supply is closely associated with the drainage problem, and the 
author has therefore deemed it advisable in several instances to go 
somewhat into the general subject of water supply. This is especially 
true of country plumbing systems and of the systems of large city 
buildings. 

In conclusion, the author would say that to him the collection and 
arrangement of the information which " Modern Plumbing Illus- 
trated " contains has been a matter not only of much labor, but of 
much pleasure as well. It is a subject which has held his interest 
for many years, and the interest which he has long had in all that 
pertains to the betterment of plumbing construction and to the better- 
ment of the plumbing trade at large will always continue. 

It is his sincere hope that the following pages may hold infor- 
mation of interest and of value to his readers, and that they may 
prove a source of help in time of need. 

November, 1906. 



CONTENTS 

PAGE 

; • ''' 

Plate I. — The Kitchen Sink — Laundry Tubs — Vegetable Wash 

Sink 15 

Plate II. — Lavatories — The Pantry Sink — Contents of Marble Slabs 21 

Plate III.— The Bath' Tub— Foot Bath— Sitz Bath— Child's Bath- 
Shower Bath — Trimmings for Baths and Lavatories — Setting 
Marble Floor Slabs 29 

Plate IV. — Water Closet Connections — Venting of Water Closets . 35 

Plate V. — The Low-down Water Closet — Operation of the Water 

Closet by Flush Valves — Water Closet Ranges 41 

Plate VI. — The Slop Sink — The Urinal — The Bidet 47 

Plate VII. — The Hotel or Restaurant Sink — The Use of Grease 

Traps 53 

Plate VIII. — Refrigerators — Safe Wastes — Tank Overflow — Floor 
Drains and Drips from Ice Houses, etc. — Laundry Waste — 
Creamery Waste 59 

Plate IX. — Refrigerator Lines — Bar Sinks — Soda Fountain Sinks — 

Exhausts, Drips, and Blow-offs of Steam Boilers, etc. ... 63 

Plate X. — The Stall Sink — The Horse Trough — Frost-Proof Water 

Closets 6'j 

Plate XI. — Connections for S-Traps — Venting 71 

Plate XII. — Connections for Drum Traps — Practical Requirements 

of Venting 79 

Plate XIII. — Soil Pipe and Soil Pipe Connections ..... 85 

Plate XIV. — Supporting and Running of Soil Pipe 93 

9 



lo CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Plate XV. — The House or Main Trap and Fresh Air Inlet ... 99 

Plate XVI. — Floor and Yard Drains — Subsoil Drainage — The 

Cellar Drainer 107 

Plate XVII. — Water Closets — Water Closet Floor Connections . . 113 

Plate XVIII. — Local Venting 121 

Plate XIX. — Bath Rooms 129 

Plate XX. — Bath Rooms 135 

Plate XXL— Bath Rooms 141 

Plate XXII. — Bath Rooms 147 

Plate XXIII. — Poor Practices in Plumbing Construction . . . 153 

Plate XXIV. — " Roughing-in " — Use of Cleanouts 159 

Plate XXV. — Testing of the Plumbing System — The Water Test — 

The Air Test — The Smoke Test — The Peppermint Test . . 165 

Plate XXVI. — Continuous Venting 173 

Plate XXVII. — Continuous Venting for Two-Floor Work . . . 177 

Plate XXVIII. — Continuous Venting for Two Lines of Fixtures on 

Three or More Floors — Practical Requirements of Venting . 181 

Plate XXIX. — Continuous Venting of Water Closets — Circuit Vents 

— Loop Vents 185 

Plate XXX. — Plumbing for Cottage House — General Remarks . .189 

Plate XXXI. — Construction of Cellar Piping — The House Drain, 

House Sewer, etc 193 

Plate XXXII. — Plumbing for Residences — Use of Special Fittings 

— Brass Piping 199 

Plate XXXIII. — Plumbing for Two-Flat House — Rain Leaders — 
Regulation of Plumbing Construction in Tenement Houses, 
Lodging Houses, etc 203 

Plate XXXIV. — Plumbing for Apartment Building — Systems of 

Hot- Water Supply — ^Range Boilers, etc 209 



CONTENTS II 

PAGE 

Plate XXXV. — Plumbing for Double Apartment Buildings — Fil- 
tered Water Supply 215 

Plate XXXVI.— Plumbing for Office Buildings 221 

Plate XXXVII. — Plumbing for Public Toilet Rooms — Causes of 

Siphonage in the Unvented Plumbing System 225 

Plate XXXVIII. — Plumbing for Public Toilet Rooms .... 231 

Plate XXXIX. — Plumbing for Bath Establishment — Tanks for Stor- 
age and Supply 235 



Plate XL. — Plumbing for Engine House and Stables — Factory 

Plumbing 239 

Plate XLI. — Automatic Flushing for Schools, Factories, etc. . . 243 

Plate XLII. — The Use of Flushing Valves 249 

Plate XLIII. — Urinals for Public Toilet Rooms 253 

Plate XLIV. — The Durham System — The Destruction of Pipes by 

Electrolysis 259 

Plate XLV. — Construction of Work without Use of Lead . . . 269 

Plate XLVI. — The Disposal of Sewage of Fixtures Located below 
Sewer Level — Automatic Sewage Lifts — Automatic Sump 
Tanks 2/5 

Plate XLVII. — Country Plumbing — Water Supply 283 

Plate XLVIII. — Construction and Use of Cesspools 291 

Plate XLIX. — Construction and Action of the Septic Tank — Under- 
ground Disposal of Partially Purified Sewage — Automatic 
Sewage Siphons 297 

Plate L. — Pneumatic Systems of Water Supply — Hydraulic Rams — 
Pumps — Water Supply by Siphonage — Pumping by Windmill 
— Capacity of Tanks — Protection of Supply Pipes against 
Freezing 307 

Plate LI. — Water Supply for Country House — Double- Acting Ram 

— Cistern Filters — Hot- Water Supply 323 



12 CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Plate LI I. — Thawing Underground Water Pipes by Electricity . 329 

Plate LIII. — Double Boilers 335 

Plate LIV. — Hot-Water Supply for Large Buildings .... 341 

Plate LV. — Automatic Control of Hot-Water Tanks 347 

Suggestions for Estimating Plumbing Construction 351 



INTRODUCTION 

Many of the readers of " Modern Plumbing Illustrated " have 
long been acquainted with the same title applied to another work by 
the same author, which is now no longer published. A few remarks 
relating to the several steps through which this work has passed may 
be of interest. 

In January, 1899, Mr. Starbuck published a novel work relat- 
ing to plumbing construction, known as " The Starbuck Plumbing 
Charts." 

This work consisted of fifty blue-print plates showing a variety 
of work relating to plumbing systems of various kinds, including 
both detail work and complete systems. The work filled a require- 
ment which had never before been met, and was cordially received 
by the plumbing fraternity at large. After a short time, however, 
it was seen that the " Plumbing Charts " were deficient in many 
respects, and as a result this work was replaced in 1900 by a far 
more extensive publication, known as " Modern Plumbing Illus- 
trated." This work was still in the form of blue-print plates, with- 
out text, but double the size of the original plates, and meeting 
practical requirements to a far greater extent than the original work. 
The work in the form of blue prints has had an immense sale during 
the past six years among all interested classes, including architects, 
master and journeyman plumbers, boards of health and plumbing 
examiners, contractors, etc. Meanwhile, however, vast improvements 
have been made in all branches of plumbing construction, with the 
result that much of the work shown in the 1900 publication has now 
been so far improved upon that it has seemed best to the author to 
again revise the work. 

In the work of revision it has been found inadvisable to make 
use of any of the plates of the 1900 publication, and accordingly each 
illustration of the present publication has been drawn especially for 
this work. Whereas the fifty full-page cuts of the 1900 work repre- 
sented some seventy separate illustrations, the present form shows 
more than twice this number. 

13 



14 INTRODUCTION 

The greatest improvement in " Modern Plumbing Illustrated," 
however, is to be found in the addition of a large amount of text, 
and in carrying out this part of his work the author has endeavored 
at every point to convey the information imparted in as concise a 
manner as possible, while at the same time making it entirely clear 
and comprehensive. 

As each successive revision of the work has been undertaken, it 
has been the aim of the author to purge it of all unnecessary and 
obsolete matter, and to keep it as far as possible entirely up to date. 



PLATE I 
THE KITCHEN SINK— LAUNDRY TUBS 



r^ 



C<=>nnec/-/^ns 

f^r Kihcheh Sink 



PI a he I. 




Vei^f 



N 







J2d>02IZ 



/ 







h 71 



Je)ro2zs J§>^Qrd. 





S 



22^(3922^ J^22rz,e. 



r^ 



IVi 



f<>r Laundry Tubs 

I2^022z Jhzi&e 




THE KITCHEN SINK 

The kitchen sink is made of plain, galvanized or enameled cast 
iron, slate, soapstone, and porcelain. The waste for the kitchen sink 
is generally ij^ inch, though the tendency is toward the use of 2-inch 
pipe. As this fixture is usually subject to greater use than any other 
plumbing fixture of the house, and as much greasy matter enters it, 
even with the utmost care, 2-inch pipe is often preferable to i^ inch. 

The vent for the trap of the kitchen sink should be of i^-inch 
pipe. In connection with this fixture, especially in large residences, 
restaurants, boarding houses, or wherever a large amount of dish- 
washing and cooking is done, a grease trap will often serve the fix- 
ture much more satisfactorily than the ordinary trap. An illustra- 
tion and description of such a trap will be found under Plate 7. 
Sinks are generally set about 32 inches from the floor, this measure- 
ment being to the top of the sink. This height may be varied an 
inch either way, to suit the desires of the owner. As the kitchen 
sink is so much in use, and demands so much hot water, the prefer- 
ence in the matter of such supply should be given this fixture over 
all others. A quick supply of hot water may be secured by connect- 
ing the fllow pipe from the range into the hot-water pipe at the top 
of the boiler instead of into the side of the boiler as generally done. 
This is of special value when hot water is required at the kitchen 
sink in the morning, the range fire having been allowed to go out 
the night before. 



TABLE OF SIZES OF CAST-IRON SINKS 

The following sizes are for plain, galvanized, and enameled cast- 
iron sinks, the depth of sink being 6 inches, and the dimensions in 
inches. 



12 X 12 


12 X 20 


14 X 22 


16 X 16 


12 X 14 


14 X 14 


14 X 24 


16 X 20 


12 X 16 


14 X 18 


14X26 


16X24 


12 X 18 


14 X 20 


15 X27 


16 X 28 



17 



i8 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

i6 X 30 18 X 36 20 X 40 22 X 62 

16 X 36 18 X 42 20 X 42 22 X 76 

17 X 28 20 X 20 20 X 48 23 X 42 
17 X 30 20 X 24 20 X 60 23 X 48 

17 X 35 20 X 26 20 X 72 24 X 48 

18 X 18 20 X 28 21 X 42 24 X 50 
18 X 24 20 X 30 22 X 36 24 X 80 
18 X 28 20 X 32 22 X 40 24 X 120 
18 X 30 20 X 36 22 X 42 26 X 52 
18 X 32 20 X 38 ^2. X 48 

The most satisfactory sizes of kitchen sinks for family use are, 
viz. : 18 X 36, 20 X 36, and 20 X 42. If space allows, 20 X 42 is 
the preferable size. Sinks 18 X 36 are largely used in the cheaper 
class of work. 

All sinks are cast with the bottom pitching toward the outlet 
end. Therefore there is no necessity of setting the sink so that its 
top is other than level. 

A valuable device for use in connection with the kitchen sink is 
the flexible wooden sink mat. This mat, being flexible, will fit into any 
sink, and in the case of enameled or porcelain sinks keeps the surface 
from being scratched by pots and kettles. It also prevents breakage 
in setting dishes, etc., into the bottom of the sink. 



VEGETABLE WASH SINK 

A fixture now much used in high-grade kitchen work of resi- 
dences, hotels, restaurants, clubs, etc., is the vegetable wash sink. 

This fixture is generally made of enameled cast iron or porcelain, 
and is provided with a standing overflow at one end, so that the water 
may fill the sink, which is of considerable depth, without flowing into 
the waste. 

The waste and vent for the vegetable wash sink are of the same 
size as for the kitchen sink. 



LAUNDRY TUBS 

Laundry tubs, or wash trays, are made of porcelain, enameled 
cast iron, soapstone, slate, and artificial stone. 

The connections for this fixture are shown in Plate I. The 



LAUNDRY TUBS 19 

waste outlet from each section of the laundry tubs should be i>^ 
inches in size. The main waste and trap for a two-part laundry tub 
may be 13^ inches, and for laundry tubs of three to six sections, the 
main waste and trap should not be less than 2 inches in size. 

The vent from the trap of a set of laundry tubs should not be 
less than i^ inches in size. Formerly this fixture was made of 
wood, the several sections sometimes being lined with sheet metal. 
The use of the wooden laundry tubs or wooden sink should be pro- 
hibited, as the wood readily absorbs moisture and filth, and the fix- 
ture soon becomes unsanitary. 

For use in general work, such as for dwelling houses, and the 
less pretentious residences, laundry tubs either of slate or soapstone 
give excellent service. 

Laundry tubs of artificial stone are much used in the cheaper 
grades of work, but often have the disadvantage of cracking and 
crumbling, especially if installed in cold places, where frost may work 
into the stone. A strong cement for mending artificial stone, slate, 
and soapstone tubs may be made of litharge and glycerine formed 
into a paste, which is very hard when it has set, and very durable. 

In many instances, especially in flats and apartment houses, 
the laundry tubs are located in the kitchen, close to the sink. When 
so located, it is customary in some sections to allow one trap to 
serve both fixtures. This is considered poor practice in any case, 
and especially when applied to such fixtures as the kitchen sink 
and laundry tubs. Each fixture should be separately trapped. Al- 
though the use of the drum trap is not popular in certain sections, 
in connection with laundry tubs it may be used to great advantage 
many times, for it can usually be located more advantageously than 
the S trap, and is of sufficient diameter to easily receive any number 
of waste pipes that may be required to enter it. In its use, a less 
length of fouled waste connection to the trap is able to throw impure 
odors into the room than in such a connection as shown in Plate I. 

When the kitchen sink and laundry tubs are each to be located 
in the kitchen, and especially when it is necessary to economize space, 
the combination kitchen sink and laundry tub may be used to advan- 
tage. This fixture combines the two fixtures in one. 



Plate II 

LAVATORIES 



C<^nnzctions 

f^r Uoyoh<=>ry 



R/o/-<z B. 



r^ 



1^ 



Veiz/- 



ra 




O ^'9 ^ 



r'9 



f'^r Ron fry Sink 



12^ Q lie Vei^/' 



a 



r^ 



J^I^2J^ J^ '=>OJ^Ci 



c; 



jl: 




J^x-ocJse/ 



^ 



VeTi/ 



m 



17^02 23 

SfocM 




LAVATORIES 

Lavatories are generally made of marble, enameled cast iron, 
or porcelain. 

Marble is fast being superseded by enameled cast iron and porce- 
lain. Marble lavatories present opportunity for the collection of filth 
in the joints and corners between the marble parts and between the 
bowl and the marble. 

Enameled cast-iron and porcelain lavatories are cast in one 
piece, which includes both the back and the bowl, for which reason 
there is no necessity of setting the bowl, and therefore no possibility 
that it may become loose and need resetting, as often happens in the 
use of marble lavatories. 

Being cast in one piece, there are no joints to fill up with filth. 
It is for these reasons that enameled cast-iron and porcelain lava- 
tories are preferable to marble. 

The waste from the lavatory is generally of i^-inch pipe, but 
should never be as small as i inch, a size which is sometimes used. 
The trap vent should also be i^ inches in size. The lavatory should 
be set so that its upper surface is about 31 inches from the floor. 
The height may, of course, be varied to suit the desires of the owner. 

The trap of this fixture is very liable to stoppage, not from greasy 
matter as in the trap of the kitchen sink, but from soap, lint, and hair. 

Two methods of making waste connections for the lavatory may 
be followed, shown in Plate 2 by Figs. A and B. The waste may be 
carried to the floor, as in Fig. A, or directly back to the wall, as in 
Fig. B. The latter method is preferable, as the waste connection so 
made is shorter, there is less of the work exposed to rough usage, 
and a separate entrance into the main soil or waste pipe may always 
be secured. The vent of the half S-trap may be taken off farther 
from the seal than in the case of the full S-trap, resulting in a lower 
rate of evaporation, and the half S-trap is less subject to siphonage 
than the full S-trap, owing to the long outlet arm of the latter. Usu- 
ally when the half S-trap can be used for the lavatory, or, in fact, for 
any other fixture, the continuous method of venting may be applied, 

23 



24 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

as shown in Fig. B. This method is of great advantage to any fixture, 
and is fully described under Plate 26. 

An objection to the use of the patent overflow bowl, such as 
shown in Figs. A and B, is that the overflow soon becomes coated 
with filth, which often throws off foul odors into the room. The use 
of scented soaps increases this objectionable feature. 

The same thing occurs in public toilet rooms when a line of sev- 
eral lavatories is served by a single trap at the end of the line. This 
long line of fouled waste pipe sends out its foul odors into the room 
through the outlet of each bowl. 

Italian and Tennessee marble is the material mostly used for 
marble lavatories. 

On good work, lavatory top slabs are countersunk, with moulded 
edges, and i^ inch thick. The backs and ends for lavatories may 
be 8, 10, 12, 14, 18, or 20 inches in height. 

The standard sizes of marble slabs for lavatories are 19 X 24, 
20 X 24, 20 X 26, 20 X 28, 20 X 30, 22 X 28, 22 X 30, and 22 X 36. 

On the better grades of work the larger sizes of slabs, with high 
backs, are mostly used. 

Lavatory bowls may be obtained either round or oval, with com- 
mon overflow or patent overflow. Round bowls are made of 12, 13, 
14, 15, and 16 inch diameter, the 14-inch bowl being largely used on 
general work. 

The sizes of oval bowls are 14 X 17, 15 X 19, and 16 X 21. 

The bowl is generally fastened to the marble slab before the 
latter is set in position. The bowl is attached by means of bowl 
clamps. Three or four bowl clamps may be used on round bowls, 
but not less than four on oval bowls. 

The slab is drilled out to receive the clamp bolt, the hole being 
cut under at the bottom. The bolt is held firmly in the marble slab 
by means of lead poured in around it and caulked, the under cut at 
the bottom clinching the lead and preventing it pulling out. The 
joint between the bowl and the marble is made with plaster-of-paris. 

In connection with the subject of marble work, the making of 
marble cements may be of interest. Portland cement withstands 
water, as also a cement made by soaking plaster-of-paris in a satu- 
rated solution of alum, the mixture being baked and ground into a 
powder and applied by mixing with water. A putty made of litharge 
and glycerine is also good. 



CONTENTS OF MARBLE SLABS 25 

THE PANTRY SINK 

Pantry sinks commonly in use are made of sheet copper; the 
higher grades are of enameled cast iron and of porcelain. 

A very satisfactory pantry sink may be constructed by lining a 
wooden box, of proper dimensions, with white metal. The back and 
drain boards should also be lined with the same material. This work 
requires the services of a skilled workman, for it is a difficult matter 
to lay the metal smoothly and to finish the joints and seams so that 
they may be as nearly invisible as possible. 

Many of the more pretentious residences now have a breakfast 
room in addition to the dining room, each being provided with its 
own special pantry sink. 

The size of waste for the pantry sink should be i^/^ inch; the 
size of trap vent should also be i^ inch. 

The pantry sink should be set so that the top of the sink is about 
32 inches from the floor. 

CONTENTS OF MARBLE SLABS 

In connection with the subject of marble lavatories the follow- 
ing table will be found of value. Marble slabs are sold by the foot, 
and from this table the contents of any slab from 6 X 12 inches to 
47 X (^2 inches may be c[uickly found. The figures in the top hori- 
zontal line show the widths of slabs, and the figures in the left-hand 
vertical column show lengths. In estimating on slabs with finished 
edges it is customary to add one inch in length or width, as the case 
may be, for each finished edge. 

The following example will show the manner in which the table 
is to be used: 

It is required to find the contents of a marble slab 20 X 24 in., 
having both ends and the front edge finished, with lo-inch back. 
Adding i inch for each finished edge, gives the slab dimensions as 
21 X 26 in., and the dimensions of the back as 11 X 26 in. 

Find in the side column the length, 26 inches, and in the upper 
line the width, 21 inches. 

To the right of the 26, and under the 21, will be found the con- 
tents of a slab 21 X 26 in., 3 feet 10 inches, and in the same manner 
the contents of the back will be found to be 2 feet, giving a total of 
5 feet 10 inches. End pieces will be found in the same way. 



26 



MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 



W 
o 

IM 
Ml 

M 

Ml 


to 

IN 


c 


OOMMCOiOt^ai IN'*OOOOMCO>Ot^05MINr)<0 

1-1 M r-l 

■*-.^i0i0i0»0»0fflc0«Dt0OOt^t^t^I^t^t^M0000 


<N 


.s 


■*<D00O e<5U5t-.0Sr-(MC<5'Ot>.0»MM'*«D00O (N 
t-1 »-l t— 1 I— 1 

•*•*■*■* in >OiO>0>OiOCOtOO«Ddfflt^l>t^t-l>0000 


01 


.s 


IN-*COOOO IN-*O00O IN-*O00O (N-*O00O 

^H .-( 7-1 M 


CO 
IN 


^ 


OOO (N-^tDOOOMMTOint^oSrHMMUSt^ffiO IN'^CO 

T-l r^ ^ i-l T-l 


S 


.9 


■*tO00O NOOiOt^O;t-iMIN-*OXO MMirjt^OJM IN 

pH I— 1 r-l »H 

COCOCCM-*-*-*Ttl-*->il-*iClClO'^u:iU5COeOOOO(OOt^t^ 


0) 




MMTjicooooMMccmccooo T-iM>ot»ooo e<ico»ot>.o>o 

i-< »— 1 rH 1— 1 I— 1 
C<5MC0MC0MM'*-^-*Tl<-*Ttl>O'OU5"5U5>0«350®t0«0C0«O«D 


O 




OMMINTHtOt^OJM (N'^lOt^OJO NCOiOl^OOO MCOOtO 

t-l M M r-l 

INClCOCOC<5COCCCOCO-*Tfli^-*Tt<Ttl-*iO>0>0>0"OlOlOtt)«l!00<0 


M 




OOOOM INTt<lOt^OOO rHC<:-*CDt^OM C^COiOt^OOOi-HMIN 

1—1 I— 1 rH rH 1— 1 

INe<lC<lC<)C<5MCi5MWMM'<*''*Tjl-*rJI-*-^-<lllI5lf5lO»(5>CilO«5"5«!CO 




.s 

si 


MlOfflOOOJM INC0>OtOC»OirH INCOlOOOCOlM NMlOIOOOOM 

t-t rH rH rH 

ININ(NIN(N(NMCOCOCOC«:cOCOC<3Ttl-<t-*i^-*rJl'!tl'^iOlOiOlOlOlOlOlO 


T— I 




ININe<5'«ll<Ot^050MMINTtl>Ot^OOCT)rH INM»0«Ol^"050 rHIN-*>OI> 
rH rH rH rH 

(NINlNIN(N(N(NIN(NCOCOmMeiSeOMeOTtl-*-*Til'*-*-*-<j<U5U5lOiOLO'C 


50 




05rH rHC<5'*lOt^00OSrH rHMTtllOt^OOOlrH MC0-*lOr-00O5rH rHCO 
r-^ ^-K T-K y-^ 

MrHIN(N(N(NIN(NMINNMMMC0e0e0C0C0C0-*Ttl'*-*T)(i*Ttl-*i*iO>O>O 


»— 1 


-J 


t^OOOSM i-l(N-*>0<0t^OOrH INCO-*»Ot»C10aiO M(NM>OlOt^00CrH 

rH rH rH rH rH rH 

rHMMMININMINNINININININCOCOMWroCOCOCOCO-*-*-*-*-*-*-*-"*-*-* 


M 




■^COt^00050rHi-(|N«'*'C«005aiOrH rHC0'<f>OlOl^00OrH rHC<|«'Oirit~ 
1-^1-^ rH rH T~^ T~^ 

MrnrHrHrHrHrHININININININININININCCCCroCCCOCOCCCOCOM-*^-*'*'-*-*-* 


I-H 




C<ICCrt<l0O00C5OrH rHINCC'SllOtOt^OSOrH rHlNC<5-*>OOt^OOOrH rHlNM 
rH rH rH rH y-K t-K 

rHrHrHrHrHr-lrHrHrHlNlNlNCllNININlNlMtNINMMMMCOMeOMMCOM-*-*'*''*' 


(N 

1-1 




MINCO-*lOcrt^OOOCrH rHINCrS'Jtl'OOt^OOOsOM MlNMT^lOOt^OOOsOM 

1^ T^ rH rH rH rH 




M 
tH 


_d 


rH rH (N CO •* IC «0.t- OOffiOOrH r-l|NCO'*LOOt^OOOClOrH rHlNCO-*lOtDt^t> 
rH r^ i~< 7^ y^ 




o 

f-l 


_d 


OrH rH(NCOCOT)llOOr^X00030rH rHrHlNCO-<*l»OOOt^OOOaOrHrH rHlNCO"* 




0> 




©OrH rHC^C:C0'*'0OOt^000105OM i-H(NCOfO-*lOOCOI>0000050rH 

rH rH rH rH rH rH 




00 


.S 

4^ 


OOmOOrH rH(N(NC0-*^iOOOr-00000>OOrH MININCOCO-^'OtflOt^OO 

rH rH rH rH rH rH 




w 


.2 
si 


t>-000505OOrHrH rHrHININCOr^TflC'OOt^t^OOOOOOSOOrH rHrH^COCO'* 

M rH rH rH rH rH rH 




« 


4^ 


Ot^t-00000:0500MM rHrHlNC^CCCO'^^lOlOOOt^t^OOOOOifflOOrHrH 
v-^ r^ T-\ i-< rnrHrHrH 




•S3 
'HI 


otiai 






C-lCO-*LOOr^0003CrHNcOTj"iOOt^OOOOrHlNCO'*LOOt^OOOOrH(NCO'*>OOt^ 
rHMMMMMMMINININCqcaiNININININCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCO-*-*-*^-*-*'*-* 



CONTENTS OF MARBLE SLABS 



27 





(^ 


.£ 


•*00 -^OO THOOWMt^i-iMt^'HTO 




■* 


-*-j 

Vx 


lomcotoot^t^t^t^ooooooaiooio 


«> 


.S 


00 ■'J'OO -^t-rtTOt^rHTOCOOlNOC 
rH i-H i-H T-l 




■* 




-^lOmiOlO^O^CDt^t^t^OOOOOOOsOOS 


in 


.s 


lOOO ■*00'-lMI^'H(NtDO(NinO5'-iiO 
tH rH »-H 




■* 


4^* 


■^Tft-^iOiOiOiOiOCDCDt^t^t^OOOOOOOSOJ 


■* 


• ^ 


lOC: '-i'*00 TOt^i-iNOOi-HiOO! TJHOO'-H 

T— 1 1— I 1-H 


• 


■* 




TOTO-*-*-*iOlO>OiOtDO«5l>t^t^OOOOOOOO 


2' 


.s 






■* 


4-J 


NTOTOTO'^^-^-^iOmiOtD^OCOl^t^t^t^OOOO 


(N 


.£ 


TOt^OTOKJO ■*t^T-((N«00)i-l-<l<MT-lMtOOi-l 

f— ( rH 1-H I— t 




-* 


+^ 


(N(Nc^TOTOM^-*TiHTjiioin":i«otocOTOr-t~t~oo 


1—1 


d 


00 TOCOOi-HiOOO'^TOOOrHiOOO'HTOCOO'-i-^OO 




■* 


d 


i-l<NCqM<NTOTOTOTO^Tt<TjHioiO'0>0«0(lO(0(^t~t^ 





.s 


rHlOOOi-iTOOO:>-l'*t~rt(NlOCS TOt^O'-H'COO'-im 
i-l r-t 1-H i-l 




■* 




rHrtr-lr-l(N(NINTOTOTOTO-*-*-*l0i0i0i0t0C0t0<Ot^ 


■i 






^-< 




a> 


_d 


t^OrHlOOOrHIMtOOS TOt»OiH-*00rHC<|lCO TOtOO 
rH tH t-H t-1 1-H 


«3 


t4- 


OOiHrHi-li-l(N(N<NTOTOTOTOTt<Tj<Tt<-*io>OiOCOtO<0!0 


00 


■ ^ 


■*t>OT-l-*t^rtlMiO00'H(N«2O TOilOOSr-i-^t^Ort-* 
rH T— 1 1— I T— I 


1 




-t^ 


OOOO.-li-liH>-i(N<N(NrqTOMTO'J<'*-*-*>0ini0i0«0«D 


m 
W 










t>- 


c 


5005 TOCDO.-lTt<t^O^-*t~Oi-HTtlt^.-iiMlOOO'-i(N»OOOi-H 

rH 1— 1 tH tH »— 1 i-H 


M 




0>050000i-l»Hi-l,-HNN(M(NTOTOMM'*-*-*'*'*'*'*'* 


12; 




l*- 




1— 1 




c 


TO«003 TOO® roOO TOOO TOCOOS TO<00 TOCO 


;2; 


C5 




05ai05C»oooo^rHi-irHiN!N(N(NMroroTO-*-*-<i<-*>oin'o 


in 


.s 


C005 TO«505 (NiOOO^IN'OOO^INiOOO^IN-*l^OrHTtHt^O-H 

T-H iH rH i-H i-H 


TO 




0000010>Ci0500000rt'H,^rH(N(NIN(NTOTOmTO-*-*-*'*iO 


H- 1 




t*-. 




Tt< 


.S 


ro005 TOlOOOrHINUSOOOrHrtHt^Oi-tTOOOS TOCDOO'-ilN'OOO 

1-H 1— 1 1-H t-H 




M 


+-> 


0000000002050smOOOOOrHrHiHrH(N(N<N(NTOMTOTOTO-<l<-*-* 


TO 


d 


t^O m(D05i-H(N>OWOi-H^t^O TOOOOi-HINlOt~Oi-H'*OOS TO 

1-H rH rH rH rH 




TO 


-u' 


l>t^000000000005050505OOOOrHrHrHrHrHIMC<l(M<NTOTOTOTOTjlT)< 


IN 


.2 


i-Hi^r^Oi TOlOOOrHrHTtt^OS TOlOOOrHrHi^t^O TOlOCOrHrHTjHt^Ol 
r^ ^< -r-K 




TO 


-4^ 


t^I>t^t^OOOCOOOOOOO;0505000000rHrHrHrH(N(N(N<N(NTOTOTOTO 


f-H 


.s 


OOrHrHTJHCOO: C<)lOt~OrHTO5O00rHrH-*t^C5 (NlOOOOrHTOCOOCrHlN-* 
1-* rH ^^ rH rH 




TO 


-tJ 


OCDt^t^t~I>000000C000050SO0>0)OOOOrHr-HrHrHrH(N(NlN(MC^TOTO 





.s 


MOOOrHrH-^COOirHlM-^t^OS (N"5I^O TOlO00OrHTOCDXrHrH-5t<COO5rH 
rH 1-H ^-^ y-^ ^H 1-t 




TO 


4J 


ffl<OOtOl^t^t^t~l^OOOOMOOO>OS050J0500000rHrHrHrHrH(N(N(N(N(N 


,°; 


c 


OrHTO'OOCOrHTO'OOOOrHMcOOOOi-iTOilO 








iOO<DtD001>t^l>t~t^OOOOOOOOOOffliO>05 


S 


d 


10000 TO»Ot^O <NiCt-0 (N-*t~05 N 

rH rH 






lOlOiOOOCOOtDt^t^t^t^l^OOOOOOXOOOro 


r-. 


_d 


rHTOlOOOO (NlOt^OrH(N-*OOOrHrHTOlOOOO 
rH y-t rH rH 






4^ 


lOlOUSlOlOCOtOtOtOtOOt^t^t^l^t^OOOOOOCOOO 


•sa 

'HX 


HONI 
ON 37 


^-cccidrH'(^iTOTJ^locD^■^o6o:CrH(^1TO■*^oot^ooG:OrH(NM■*>oo^•ooCTOrH(^^ 

SSSmmTOTOTOTOTOTOTOTO^'^^M'M'^Tj'Tit^^iO'OiOOiOiOiCiOUJiOOOffl 



Plate III 

BATHS 



P/a/-e 3, 



C^nncc/-/ons f^r 







-!S /Va<s/-e 



Both Tub 



M 



27^ 02 2d 
Veid/- 



X 



r^?=i 




C^nnec/-/<=>r7S -for 
r<^<^/- Baf-h 3/A5 Bath 



I 



l72s>7Q>e.jr2a2 TVocS^e 




m 



H^» .yS^ 



ojz.d. <^ve2ry2^?v 




7?§ 022Z- VeTZ / 



THE BATH TUB 

Most of the higher grades of bath tubs are now made of porce- 
lain or enameled cast iron, with a wide roll rim. 

The less expensive styles of bath tubs are made of an inferior 
quality of enameled cast iron ; of steel body with copper lining, known 
as " steel-clad " tubs, and of steel body, enamel painted. 

Of the cheaper grades, the steel-clad bath tub gives good service, 
but the enamel-painted tub, although making a good appearance when 
new, in many instances soon takes on a very shabby appearance, 
owing to the wearing off or cracking off of the enamel paint. 

The bath-tub waste should be i;^ inches in size, and its trap 
vent also iVz inch. 

The regular sizes of bath tubs are, viz. : 4 ft., 4 ft. 6 in., 5 ft., 
5 ft. 6 in., and 6 ft. The 5 ft. and 5 ft. 6 in. sizes are generally the 
preferable sizes. The two smallest sizes are too short for the com- 
fort of the bather, and should be used only when space will not allow 
the use of a larger size. The old-style sheathed-in tub is no longer 
installed on new work. This form of bath tub presented much oppor- 
tunity for the collection of filth around its upper edges, and was not 
nearly so cleanly a fixture as the modern bath tubs, which are easily 
kept clean, especially in the case of the porcelain and enamel-lined 
bath tubs. 

It is often required, in the use of enamel-painted baths, to put 
on a new coat of enamel. When this is to be done, the surface of the 
tub should first be made as clean and smooth as possible, following 
which a sufficient number of coats of white lead should be applied to 
prevent the dark color of the tub from showing through, after which 
the enamel may be applied. In Connection with the bath tub, the use 
of traps of the drum pattern is good practice. A better grade on 
the outlet of this trap may often be secured than from the S-trap, 
and the cleanout of the former is much more accessible. When the 
S-trap is used under the floor, as in the case of the bath tub, an 
excellent method of providing a cleanout is the one shown in Fig. B, 
Plate 3. 

31 



32 MODERX PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

This makes the cleanout accessible without the removal of floor- 
ing, a thing which is necessary ofttimes in order to operate the clean- 
out at the bottom of the S-trap. 

Whenever the latter is used the floor above it should be screwed 
down, so that it may be taken up as easily as possible in the event 
of repairs to the trap. 



FOOT BATH— SITZ BATH— CHILD'S BATH 

The use of foot, sitz, and child's baths is not found to any extent 
except in bath rooms of the best residences. They do not represent 
a necessity as does the common bath tub, but are luxuries which 
add much to the comfort of the bath room. 

The waste for each of these three baths should be i^ inch in 
size, and the trap vent also lyi inch. In general, the principles that 
apply to the ordinary bath tub apply also to the foot, sitz, and child's 
baths. 

THE SHOWER BATH 

The shower bath generally to be found in the private bath room 
consists of a cast-iron, enameled, or porcelain receptor set upon the 
floor, around which the piping is arranged, the whole being inclosed 
by rubber curtains. The waste is connected to the receptor, and 
should be i^ inch in size, the vent being of the same size. 

An excellent shower device is also made for use in connection 
with the lavatory. It consists of a swinging bracket with a shower 
at the end of it, the swinging part being connected with a supply 
pipe at the back of the lavatory, the spray being thrown down into 
the bowl. 

TRIMMINGS FOR BATHS AND LAVATORIES 

As plumbing is now constructed, even the cheaper grades of 
work include a large amount of nickel work, in which there is a 
great variety of material to select from. 

Bi-transit wastes are extensively used on baths and lavatories 
of the better grades. This device allows the waste to flow out by 
the lifting of a plunger instead of the ordinary plug. It adds a 



SETTING MARBLE FLOOR SLABS 33 

certain finish to the fixture, but also adds a compHcation which pro- 
vides additional surface, which may become foul and produce odor. 
In general the simpler plumbing devices are the more satisfactory. 
Nickel-plated supply pipes should be of iron-pipe size, rather than 
of tubing, as the former can be screwed into the concealed iron piping, 
while the tubing must be connected into it by soldered joints, which 
are not so substantial. 

Combination cocks for baths and lavatories are very satisfactory. 
Both hot and cold water are led into the same cock in the combination 
devices, and by properly regulating the supply of each, the water 
may very easily be tempered as desired. 

Fuller work is almost entirely used on high grade work, not- 
withstanding that the quick closing of this work is often accompanied 
by vibrations and disagreeable rumbling of the pipes, which is entirely 
absent in the slower closing compression work. 

On much of the cheaper work cast-iron, nickel-plated lavatory 
brackets are used. These are not satisfactory, as in time the iron 
wall rust through the nickel plating, and the bracket will present a 
very shabby appearance. 

SETTING MARBLE FLOOR SLABS 

Marble slabs are much used under all bath-room fixtures. In 
setting the marble slab the floor should be cut out and the floor slab 
set in to such a depth that the top of it comes about a quarter of an 
inch above the floor. The floor slab should never be set on top of 
the floor if the latter is of wood. In connecting a water closet to a 
floor slab, a brass floor flange and rubber gasket should be used, the 
former being secured to the slab by means of expansion bolts, and 
set in plaster-of-paris to give it a good bearing. The floor slab itself 
should properly be set in plaster-of-paris and leveled, where neces- 
sary, to give it a level surface. If not given a good level foundation 
the slab will be liable to rock. 

Slate is another material used to considerable extent for floor 
slabs. 



Plate IV 

WATER CLOSET CONNECTIONS 



C^nnech'<=>ns f<=>r 



<^IzL<s2s <27a2Z2z 



<^Iu.<s2e ^2 7s>e 



\ 
Sfoclz 




72S0225 



J^eod J^eidd. 



yen/'/ncp <^f l^o/'er 







^Js>eC2 0J Jo°23p J— i. 

~J78o22s Q5/oc2e 
ITS 02 72 Veisf 



M>e2^d. 

r'9 A 




J <0O2zifor^Q7ee 

r'9 B. L. 




WATER CLOSET CONNECTIONS 

The waste for the water closet should be 4 in. in size, but 
never less. 

When cast-iron soil pipe is used, the connection is made by means 
of 4-in. lead pipe or a 4-in. lead bend, the pipe or bend being wiped 
to a brass ferrule which is caulked into the soil pipe, and the floor 
connection generally being made by means of floor flanges, the latter 
being considered under Plate 17. The connection of the water closet 
to wrought-iron soil pipe is shown under Plate 45. 

The water closet should never discharge into a soil pipe of less 
than 4 in. 

The lead bend is generally connected into a T-Y or modified 
form of this fitting. It is preferable to connect into a bend and Y- 
branch, as shown in Plate 40, Fig. D, or into the same combination 
of fittings arranged vertically. Such connection is often impossible, 
however, owing to lack of space, although in larger work, such as 
public toilet rooms, it may often be used without difficulty. 

The water-closet flush tank should be set so that the bottom of 
the tank is as nearly 6 ft. from the floor as possible. This tank 
should be of seven gallons capacity, although on cheap work tanks 
of five gallons capacity are largely used. 

The flush pipe from tank to closet should be i^ in. in size, but 
never smaller, as this size is required to deliver the required volume 
of water with the necessary rapidity. 

The flush pipe may be connected rigidly to the water closet or 
by means of a slip joint or rubber elbow. The latter two connections 
are preferable, as any settling of floors or slight movement of the 
fixture does not result in breaking ofif the connection to the bowl, as 
often happens in the use of rigid connections. 

The flush tank should always be provided with a flush valve of 
the siphon pattern. In the use of this valve, simply a slight pull on 
the chain is needed to flush the entire contents of the tank, while in 
the use of the ordinary flush A^alve the flushing of the water closet 
continues only so long as the chain is pulled down. The flush may 

37 



38 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

be operated in many other ways than by a chain and pull — by the 
weight of the person using the fixture; by the opening or closing 
of the door ; by means of a push button operating a crank or lever to 
which the chain is attached. The latter method allows the tank to 
be concealed behind walls or partitions. This method not only allows 
the unsightly high tank to be concealed, but also enables the working 
parts of the flush tank to be located in such a place that mischievous 
or ignorant people are unable to destroy or damage them in any way, 
an evil often encountered in public toilet rooms. 



THE VENTING OF WATER CLOSETS 

The vent from the water closet should be 2 in. in size, but never 
of smaller size. 

The vent pipe is usually connected to the lead bend, but should 
never be connected to the crockery itself, as such a connection must 
necessarily be rigid, and the settling of floors, slight movement of 
the fixture, etc., will result in breaking ofif the vent horn. 

When connected to the lead bend the vent should always be 
taken from the top of the horizontal part of the bend — never from 
the vertical part, as when so constructed it is much more liable to 
stoppage. 

Fig. A shows an excellent method of venting from the vent hub 
of a vented T-Y, a common stock fitting, the vent pipe being of 
cast or wrought iron. 

Fig. B shows the use of special waste and vent fittings, of which 
numerous styles are now on the market. 

This waste fitting is so arranged that the branch to the fixture 
enters the side of the main body of the fitting, thus allowing the fix- 
ture to set closer to the wall than is possible with the waste fitting 
of Fig. A. Work such as shown in these two illustrations is 
growing in favor, and serves to show the decadence of lead work 
and the increase in the use of cast and wrought iron in plumbing 
construction. 

Venting being employed chiefly to prevent the siphonage of fix- 
ture traps, it is unnecessary to vent a water closet which is located 
close to its stack and in a position secure from siphonic influences. 
A water closet set close to the stack, on the top floor, and without 
other fixtures on that floor wasting into the same stack, is an example 



THE VENTING OF WATER CLOSETS 39 

of this. A water closet located at a considerable distance from its 
stack, however, should always be vented, for through the long hori- 
zontal connection the waste would necessarily move slowly, particu- 
larly if the pipe were nearly level, and an obstruction, such as might 
be caused by paper, etc., might result in setting the water back suffi- 
ciently to fill the pipe, and this body of water in flowing out might 
create sufficient suction to partially or entirely destroy the seal of 
the water-closet trap. 

In the case of fixtures located on floors above the water closet 
the influence of siphonic conditions may also be felt, for as waste 
from these fixtures descends in large volume past the entrance of 
the lead bend, the air becomes somewhat exhausted, and is not renewed 
quickly enough to prevent a part of the trap seal being siphoned or 
sucked out. 

This loss may amount to but a few drops, but when continued 
indefinitely may result in the complete loss of seal, aided, as it often 
is, by additional loss due to evaporation in the case of fixtures seldom 
used. 

As far as the siphonage of the water-closet trap is concerned, 
this danger is less to be feared than in connection with smaller traps, 
for the reason that to produce siphonage of a column of water 4 
inches in diameter requires much stronger influences than to produce 
the same result on smaller traps. 

Nevertheless, the water-closet trap is probably much more sub- 
ject to siphonage than it is generally supposed to be, and if strict 
ordinances regarding its protection were not established and enforced, 
the trouble arising from this cause would be much more extensive 
than it now is. 

There is probably no part of the plumbing system which occa- 
sions so much trouble as the ball cock which supplies the water-closet 
flush tank with water. 

Two styles of ball cock are in use, the bottom supply and the 
top supply. 

Bottom supply makes neater looking work, but in other respects 
the advantage seems to be with the top supply. 

In the bottom supply the ball cock is located at the bottom of 
the tank, while in the top supply it is at the top, and therefore much 
more accessible in the event of repairs. This is especially true of 
tanks located close to ceilings. 



40 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

Under these conditions, if provided with a bottom supply, the 
tank must be taken down to repair the ball cock, while in the case 
of top supply it can usually be repaired without such inconvenience. 
Ball cocks may be further divided into two classes, direct and indi- 
rect pressure. The indirect pressure ball cock, which is commonly 
used and least expensive, is generally provided with a 5 or 6 inch 
copper ball, which closes the valve by its buoyancy. The direct pres- 
sure ball cock works on another principle than the indirect, the water 
being conducted to the rear of the plunger, thereby adding the force 
of the water pressure to the buoyancy of the float in closing the 
valve. In the direct pressure ball cock, a heavy ball or float must 
be used, as a considerable weight is necessary to enable the ball cock 
to open against pressure. The light copper ball used on the indirect 
pressure ball cock would be inadequate to perform this duty. 

Glass floats are now much in favor in connection with ball cocks, 
as they provide sufficient weight and are. more durable than the copper 
floats which are now largely used. 

As a result of keen competition, copper floats are now largely 
made of sheet copper that is so thin that it can withstand almost no 
rough usage. 

Some of the necessary requirements in a ball cock is that it shall 
be as nearly noiseless as possible, quick closing, easy to repair, of 
simple construction, and made of a high grade of metal free from 
impurities, so that the water may not act chemically upon the valve 
seat and destroy it. 



Plate V 

THE LOW-DOWN WATER CLOSET— FLUSH 
VALVES^WATER CLOSET RANGES 



P/of-z 5. 
C^nnzchi^ns f^r 






7Id>a2 7S 




n 



77^ 02 jz 



kVo/-zr Cl<^^zh Opzra^zd by 
Flushing l/a/t/'z 



€Jlu<3h22zg ' ^1^ 



Vo I ire 



IC=» 




M 



(^uje>^2j- ^ijQ>e 



tm 







Ve-rzt 



77S 02 2Z 
Veizf 




THE LO^^-DOWN WATER CLOSET 

The low-down water closet appears to be displacing the high- 
tank water closet to a large extent. Some of the advantages of this 
style of water closet are, viz. : the flush tank is more accessible, and, 
being covered, prevents dust, dirt, etc., from entering the tank and 
doing harm to the valves ; and, because of the small elevation required, 
it may be used in many places where the high tank could not be used. 

The low-down tank, however, requires the setting of the water 
closet further out into the room. 

With the exception of the differences in the flushing arrange- 
ment, the principles that apply to the high-tank water closet also 
apply to the low-down style. 

The flush of the low-down water closet as it enters the bowl has 
very little head, while in the case of the high tank it has a head due 
to an elevation of 6 ft. This lack is made up by providing a much 
larger flush pipe, in order that a large volume of water may enter 
the bowl with sufficient rapidity to produce siphonage. A water 
closet of the siphon pattern should be used in connection with the 
low-down tank, as enough water cannot enter to produce good results 
except by siphonage. 



OPERATION OF THE WATER CLOSET BY FLUSH 

VALVE 

The ffush valve is a comparatively recent device, introduced 
for the purpose of flushing the water closet without the use of the 
flush tank. 

Urinals and slop sinks may also be flushed by the same device. 

The advantages of the flush valve are many. It may be operated 
on direct or tank pressure, on high and low pressure ; it is noiseless ; 
it may easily be concealed; it may be made to work automatically; 
and it may be used in many places and under many conditions where 
it would be very difficult and unsatisfactory to use a tank closet. 

43 



44 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

It is used very extensively in public buildings, in marine work, 
and in high-class residence work. 

The subject of the application of the flush valve is considered 
further under Plate 42. 



WATER CLOSET RANGE 

While range closets are not to be compared with individual 
water closets as sanitary fixtures, the high-grade modern range 
closets represent a great step in advance of the old-style range. The 
great objection to the range water closet is that soil entering one of 
the compartments is not carried away at once, as soon as the use of 
it has ceased, but must remain until the flush for the entire range 
operates. During this interval it is throwing out into the room foul 
odors, and when this same thing is occurring in the case of a num- 
ber of compartments it can plainly be seen that the range water closet 
is not so conducive to the maintaining of a clean, sanitary toilet room 
as is the individual water closet with its immediate flush. The flush 
of the individual water closet, moreover, is more effective than that 
of a range, and there is less liability of fouled surfaces in the former. 
The range water closet consists in general of a long trough, directly 
into which the several seats open. In the modern range this trough 
may be above the floor or below it. In the latter case, the bowl of 
each compartment has the appearance, to those not familiar with the 
subject, of being an ordinary individual water closet. A closer inves- 
tigation, however, will show that it is not what it first appears to be. 

The range closets now used are generally automatically flushed, 
the flush operating at stated intervals. This interval may be made 
longer or shorter by operating the valve on the supply pipe to 
the tank. 

Most ranges are now provided with an automatic siphon which 
is started when the flush enters the range, and continues until the 
water in the flush tank drops to such a level that air is admitted to 
a pipe communicating with the crown of the siphon. This breaks the 
siphon, and the rest of the water that enters the range remains there 
until the next flush. 

This water prevents the surface of the range trough from becom- 
ing fouled. 



WATER CLOSET RANGE 45 

The action of the automatic flush and siphon is strong, and 
very satisfactory. 

The best feature of the modern range water closets, however, is 
the local vent which is provided with many of them. At the end of 
the range a 12 or 14-in. opening is provided with a collar to which 
the local vent pipe is attached, and the latter carried into a heated 
flue. Such a flue should not fail to be heated throughout the year. 

The action of the local vent under a strong draught is very 
effective in the use of the range water closet. The draught draws 
impure air into the range through each seat opening, not only carry- 
ing it out of the toilet room, but preventing the odors occasioned by 
the use of the fixture from rising into the room. 

The range water closet should not be used without a strong- 
acting local vent. Modern range water closets are generally of 
enamel-lined or porcelain ware, which is far more cleanly for the pur- 
pose than cast iron, such as was formerly much used. Of the modern 
styles of ranges, the type in which the seat opens into the range 
trough through a short bowl attached to the trough is preferable to 
the longer bowl, which presents greater opportunity for fouling. The 
latter is a serious matter in connection with the range water closet, 
-as there is no flush around the bowl as in the individual water closet. 
Many cities prohibit the use of range closets, and this is a proper 
regulation, as the toilet rooms of schools, factories, etc., w^here the 
range is mostly used, are difficult to maintain in a cleanly condition 
at best, and the use of individual water closets reaches the desired 
end much more satisfactorily. 



Plate VI 

THE SLOP SINK— URINAL-BIDET 



^S/oyo Sink 



P/o/-e 6. 



r 



J^ocJz 



C 



ci7ro/s> 
CI e 073 '=^iz/ — ► 



n 




Q 



]7d>02Id, 







Ve2zf 



R?^ 



>?^7S/ 



77^(7278 



f^ 




Ur/nols 

— Z7i^2isoI C<=>cJs 



(SJofe 



3 



THE SLOP SINK 

The best forms of slop sink are those of enamel lined or porce- 
lain ware. 

Owing to the nature of the waste which enters it the slop sink 
becomes a very foul and unsanitary fixture unless properly con- 
structed. The most approved type is that having a flushing rim and 
provided with a flush tank. As the water enters the slop sink through 
the flushing rim its entire surface is thoroughly flushed and cleansed. 
The use of plain cast-iron slop sinks, flushed only by means of a 
common faucet, is very poor practice indeed. Such a fixture it is 
impossible to keep in a sanitary condition, and a foul-smelling room 
must result from its use. 

The waste of the slop sink should be 3 in. in size; the size of the 
vent should be 2 in. The best form of trap for this fixture is one 
which is enameled over its entire interior and exterior surfaces, and 
which presents no metal surfaces which may corrode and foul. The 
slop-sink trap should be provided with a 2-in. cleanout, and it is 
excellent practice to provide a cleanout, when possible, at the end of 
the horizontal waste from the fixture, as shown in Plate 6. 

The opening of the vent into the slop-sink trap is large and not 
so liable to stoppage as the vent opening of lead traps of smaller size. 
An excellent trap of comparatively recent construction is the adjust- 
able slop-sink trap. It is of the half-S pattern, attached to a standard 
resting on the floor in the usual manner. The height of the outlet 
above the floor can be adjusted by means of a nipple, to meet rough- 
ing requirements, and the trap being of the half-S type, the continu- 
ous vent may be used in connection with it. On high-grade work 
the slop sink is often provided with a local vent. 

This local vent should be of the same size as the local vent of 
the water closet; it should enter a heated flue, and in other respects 
be installed in a manner similar to the local vent of the water closet. 
When the slop sink is of the flushing-rim type, and is provided with 
a flush tank of adequate size and also local vent, it may be made a 

49 



50 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

very sanitary fixture. The size of the slop-sink flush tank should be 
of 5 gallons capacity. In addition to the type of fixture described 
above, the waste-preventive slop hopper is used to a limited extent. 
This fixture is flushed automatically by the emptying of slops 
into it, the flushing being accomplished by the creation of a vacuum 
which produces siphonage. As intimated above, however, this fixture 
is used only to a limited extent. 



THE URINAL 

The form of urinal shown in Plate 6 is the Bedfordshire lip 
urinal with flat back. This is undoubtedly the urinal most com- 
monly in use. This fixture is made in a great variety of forms, sev- 
eral of which are shown in Plate 43. 

The waste of the lip urinal should be not less than i^^ in. in 
size, although a waste 2 in. in size is now sometimes used. 

The vent should be i^ in. in size. 

The urinal should be set so that the lip comes about 24 in. from 
the floor. This height should be less when the urinal is used in toilet 
rooms for small boys. 

All lip urinals should be of the flushing rim type. The flushing 
rim allows the entire surface of the interior to be thoroughly cleansed 
at each flush. The lip urinal may be flushed as shown in Plate 6, 
the flush being under direct pressure, and operated by means of a 
urinal cock attached to the top of the urinal. It may also be flushed 
from a tank serving a single fixture or a group. This flush tank 
may be of the automatic type, flushing the group of urinals at regular 
intervals. 

Owing to the conditions surrounding the use of the urinal, the 
known carelessness of many of the people using it, and the character 
of the waste entering it, the partitions, backs, and flooring should 
never be of wood or of any material which may corrode. When 
wood is used for these purposes it soon absorbs moisture with its 
impurities, and in a short time becomes very unsanitary. Slate is 
the proper and commonly used material for this purpose. A form 
of urinal, which is not shown in Plate 43, is the waste-preventive 
urinal, which works in a manner similar to that of the waste-pre- 
ventive slop hopper. The fixture is of such sensitive action that the 



THE BIDET 



51 



entrance of urine into the trap acts to form a vacuum which produces 
siphonage and the immediate operation of the flush. This fixture is 
not in extensive use, however, although an excellent device. 



THE BIDET 

The bidet is a fixture of comparatively recent origin, and, 
although not commonly in use, its use is increasing. 

It is a bath-room or toilet-room fixture, and to be found prin- 
cipally in the bath room or ladies' toilet rooms of pretentious resi- 
dences. The bidet is similar in shape to the water closet. 

The waste for the bidet should be i^ in., and the vent of the 
same size. 

Owing to the purpose for which it is designed, however, the 
supply to the bidet is of a much different character than that of 
the water closet. Both hot and cold water should be supplied to the 
bidet, entering the fixture through its side and rising inside the bowl 
in the form of a jet and douche. 

The supply also passes through the flushing rim in order to 
thoroughly cleanse the fixture. In connection with the bidet, a mixer, 
similar in character to the valve on shower baths, is generally used. 
This allows either hot or cold water, or water of any degree of 
warmth to be used. Such valves should be of some non-scalding 
pattern. 



Plate VII 



THE HOTEL OR RESTAURANT SINK- 
THE USE OF GREASE TRAPS 



H<^hzl <^r Rzshouranf" yS/nk 



J2§aj.2s Ve^j^/ 



r^ 



v7S oz2^ (^/-ocTs, 



(^273Ja MocJs 









\ 



I I 






"=-- 



Qa 



® 



7 









P 



le 






Gr^O'SZ Trap 



C^irer 







I 






'"^V-^^ cJaaJzeZ- 



^C^Id. m7/sz*'^. 



^ 




;;^^^S:^SS 



^= fe^ 



I 



2S: 



^ 








ssssssssssss. 



^^ 



^■.v'^^^'>^^^^^^^v-^ 



Co^Qf ^iPTa/^ez' lisle f 



THE HOTEL OR RESTAURANT SINK 

The waste and vent pipes of the ordinary kitchen sink are gen- 
erally i^ in. in size. The waste and vent of the kitchen sink, when 
used in hotel, restaurant, boarding house, and club kitchens, or when 
used in other public or private establishments which call for its almost 
constant use, should never be less than 2 in. in size. The amount of 
greasy matter entering such sinks is very great, even when the utmost 
precaution is used, and it is very necessary to so construct the work 
in connection with such a sink that stoppage shall have the least 
possible opportunity. It is a well-known fact that when sewage con- 
taining grease comes in contact with a cold surface, the grease will 
separate from the sewage and adhere to such surface. This often 
occurs in soil and waste pipes, the pipes running through cellars 
being cold and therefore well calculated to collect grease. When the 
grease begins to collect it continues to increase in thickness, until in 
time the entire bore of the pipe is filled. The collection of grease 
practically forms a body of hard soap in the pipe, and a stoppage of 
such nature cannot be dislodged by ordinary means of forcing stop- 
pages, but necessitates taking down the pipe and clearing out each 
length. 

For this reason, on horizontal lines of waste from sinks used in 
hotels, restaurants, etc., a cleanout should be inserted at intervals 
of ten feet in the piping. 

Money put into cleanouts on such work as this is always well 
invested, as their use will eventually avoid the necessity of taking 
down the waste piping, an expensive undertaking. 

THE USE OF GREASE TRAPS 

When conditions are such that a great amount of grease neces- 
sarily enters the kitchen-sink waste, it is necessary to use a grease 
trap, a form of which is to be seen in Fig. 7, this form representing 
the best type of such traps. 

As already stated, contact with cold surfaces causes the grease 

55 



56 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

in sewage to separate from the liquid, a fact which is made use of in 
the operation of this or any other grease trap. The body of the trap 
is surrounded entirely by a water jacket or chamber, with the excep- 
tion of the top. In addition, the partition in the center of the trap, 
which is designed to aid in breaking up the sewage and deflecting 
the grease upward, is also formed into a water chamber. 

The water pipe supplying the kitchen sink is connected at the 
inlet and outlet ends of this water jacket, cold water thus flowing 
through the jacket constantly and changing whenever water is drawn 
at the sink. If the jacket were simply filled with water and not 
changed there would be no cooling effect, but the method described 
keeps the surfaces against which the waste comes in contact always 
cool, resulting efifectively in the separation of the grease, which rises 
to the top and is taken out through the removable cover. The trap 
outlet is made at the bottom of the trap, instead of at the top, to aid 
in preventing the escape of the grease. 

The partition through the center of the trap also helps to pre- 
vent grease entering the trap from being carried over into the outlet. 

While the water jacket surrounding the trap does effective work, 
a large part of the results obtained is due to the presence of the hol- 
low partition or deflector. This trap is of cast iron and made in 
several sizes. 

Less expensive and less satisfactory grease traps are made on 
the same general lines as the trap just described, but not provided 
with a water jacket. Many of them do A^ery good work, but it is not 
to be expected that they can hold back as large a part of the grease 
as the trap does which is cooled continuously by the water supply. 
There is one point in the use of the grease trap which does not always 
receive consideration — the amount of money to be derived from the 
sale of grease coming from the grease trap. In large establishments 
this is often a very respectable sum of money. Traps similar in 
design to the one described are also made of wrought steel. Cast 
iron, however, would seem to be less in danger of deterioration than 
wrought steel, which is more easily acted upon by acids. The grease 
trap, on a larger scale, in the form of a catch basin, is sometimes 
located outside the building, underground, and into this receptacle 
all the kitchen waste from kitchen sinks, pantry sinks, dishwashing 
sinks, etc., is discharged. The great advantage gained in the use 
of such a catch basin is that it is constantly cooled by the moisture of 



THE USE OF GREASE TRAPS 57 

the ground in which it is located. It should always be set low enough 
in the ground to be out of danger of freezing. If it is impossible to 
so install it, the catch basin should never be used. A serious disad- 
vantage in the use of the underground catch basin is that generally 
its use necessitates a long line of horizontal waste pipe from the 
kitchen to the catch basin, and in this pipe and its connections grease 
has abundant opportunity to collect before reaching the catch basin, 
resulting in the ultimate stoppage of such pipes. 

These pipes generally run in cool cellars and for a distance under- 
ground, which favors the collection of more or less of the grease on 
their surfaces. The better plan would seem to be the use of grease 
traps under the fixtures in the kitchen, with systematic attention given 
to the removal of grease that accumulates. 

In the case of a line of kitchen sinks or of dishwashing sinks, 
one grease trap of proper size may be used for the accommodation 
of the entire number of fixtures. Catch basins for kitchen waste 
may be of brick or cast iron, and should never be less than 30 in. in 
internal diameter, tapering toward the top, if desired, to about 22 to 
24 in., and provided with a cast-iron cover. If of brick, they should 
be made water-tight. The drain from the kitchen catch basin to the 
sewer may be of glazed tile, and should be not less than 5 in. in 
diameter and provided with a trap having a deep seal. 



Plate VIII 

REFRIGERATORS^SAFE WASTES— TANK 
OVERFLOW— SPECIAL WASTES 



F?efr/gcra/'<=>r 



f^^ 



^ 



? 



Fejd/- 



o 



o 



r'9 /» 





lQ)rip 




^023 






Ja)ra<5S 
Cl't 







r<?n 



Ff'9- ^' 



^ 









7 






,_^ CeJIor (Si 73 It 



ffg. i3 



REFRIGERATORS 

Refrigerators should never, under any condition, be directly 
connected to any part of the drainage system. 

This restriction makes it necessary to provide connections for 
the refrigerator on an entirely different principle from those of the 
regular plumbing fixtures. The refrigerator should drip into a pan 
beneath it, which should be trapped, the waste from the trap dripping 
into an open sink. 

The sink should be trapped and vented in the usual manner, and 
may be connected to any soil or waste pipe. 

The use of the drum trap is good practice, as it may easily be 
cleaned of the slime and sawdust which collects in considerable quan- 
tity. It also has a much deeper seal to withstand evaporation when 
the refrigerator is out of use. 

The methods shown in Figs. A and B amply protect the refrig- 
erator, for there is not only the trap usually found inside the 
refrigerator, and the other two traps, but also the two breaks in the 
connections. 

The outlet from the refrigerator trap should discharge as far 
from the sink outlet as possible. It is preferable to drip into a sink 
in common use, as the renewal of its trap seal is ensured, but if 
impracticable, a special sink may be employed. 

It is permissible also to discharge the refrigerator waste into a 
cellar-flloor drain, yard drain, or into a trap provided with a receiv- 
ing funnel. In the latter case it is necessary to provide a brass screw 
cover or a gate valve for closing the trap when the refrigerator is 
not in use. 

The waste from the refrigerator should never be less than iji 
in. in size. Short wastes and traps may be of lead, but long lines 
should be of galvanized wrought iron. 

The refrigerator waste should have as sharp a grade as possible. 

Fig. C represents a desirable form of refrigerator drip pan. 
The box is lined with metal, formed so that all drippings entering 
the pan flow toward the outlet, which is provided with a strainer and 

6i 



62 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

brass screw cover, the latter for use when the refrigerator is not 
being used. 

The requirements for refrigerators apply also to ice boxes, or 
any other receptacle for food or provisions which it is necessary 
to drain. 



SAFE WASTES— TANK OVERFLOW 

Wastes from safes, drip pans, etc., should not be directly con- 
nected to any part of the drainage system. 

Such wastes should discharge into a sink or laundry tub, cellar- 
floor drain, or deep seal trap. 

The lower end of such a pipe should have a brass flap valve to 
prevent the passage of cellar air. 

The overflow from the attic tank or other similar tank should 
not be directly connected to the drainage system, but should be dis- 
charged upon the roof or into an open fixture. It is often convenient 
to discharge this overflow into the flush tank of a water closet on a 
floor below the tank. This overflow should never be less than i^ in. 
in size, and i^-in. pipe is often better. 



FLOOR DRAINS AND DRIPS FROM ICE HOUSES, ETC. 

Floor drains, etc., used for the draining of ice houses, refrig- 
erator rooms, storage rooms for provisions, etc., or for draining any 
room where food is prepared, should not be directly connected to 
the drainage system, but should discharge into an open catch basin 
or trapped sink located outside the building, the outer end of the pipe 
being provided with a brass flap valve. 



LAUNDRY WASTE— CREAMERY WASTE 

The waste from washing machinery in laundries, from similar 
machines in breweries and other establishments where a large volume 
of water is constantly used, and from receptacles and sinks used in 
creameries, may be discharged onto the floor, provided it is water- 
tight, properly graded, and provided with a suitable floor drain. 



Plate IX 

REFRIGERATOR LINES— BAR AND SODA- 
FOUNTAIN SINKS — EXHAUSTS — 
BLOW-OFFS, ETC. 



L/ne ^f Rafrigzra/'^rs 














5 



S 



s 



r'9 J^ 



o o 




o 




c 



s 



o 



s 



o 



s 



ro=i 



lb 



{ 



n^ 



fc/ei 



5^ 

MroS'6 
d/Iop Volve 



Fig ^• 




Sijziz 273 Cellar 



Veidf 



Wo^sf-e 



REFRIGERATOR LINES 

The size of a line of waste pipe serving refrigerators on two 
floors should be at least 1^4 in., for three or four floors i^ in., and 
for more than four floors 2 in. 

Galvanized wrought-iron pipe is generally used for this work, 
and all branches from this pipe should be made by means of forty- 
five-degree Y-branches. 

Refrigerator traps do not require venting, as no conditions are 
present to cause siphonage of their contents. 

The waste pipe which serves a line of refrigerators should in no 
case be connected direct to the plumbing system, but should dis- 
charge in the same manner as the single refrigerator, as described 
under Plate 8. All changes in direction and all offsets on the refrig- 
erator waste pipe should be provided with full-size cleanouts. 

Refrigerator pipes should never discharge upon the cellar floor 
or bottom, and wherever sewage privileges exist they should not 
drip onto the ground. However, if necessary to discharge upon the 
ground, such discharge should not take place within three feet of 
the foundation walls, unless into a tight gutter. 

Each refrigerator connecting into a line of waste pipe should be 
separately trapped, with its branch waste as short and direct as pos- 
sible. The main line should be carried directly through the roof, and 
in cold climates it should be increased to 4 in. in size before passing 
through the roof. 

The reason for this is that smaller sizes often close up at their 
upper ends with hoarfrost, thus stopping ventilation, which in the 
case of the refrigerator is a most important matter. The cellar end 
of the refrigerator line should be provided with a brass flap valve, 
in order that the upward passage of cellar air and odors may be 
prevented. 

The use of the flap valve and the cleanout is shown in Fig. B. 

65 



66 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

BAR SINKS— SODA-FOUNTAIN SINKS 

The bar sink or the soda-fountain sink may be installed, if 
desired, with an indirect connection to the drainage system, or with 
direct communication. 

When an indirect connection is made for either of these fixtures 
it may be trapped or not, as preferred, but should always discharge 
into a fixture or pan properly trapped and located as close to the bar 
sink or fountain sink as possible. 

EXHAUSTS, DRIPS, AND BLOW-OFFS OF STEAM 

BOILERS, ETC. 

The exhaust, draw-off, drip, and blow-ofif from a steam boiler 
should never connect directly into any sewer or into any part of the 
drainage system. These pipes should discharge into a tank or con- 
denser, the capacity of which should be the same as that of the boiler. 
The tank should be provided with a vent pipe not less than 2 in. in 
diameter, connecting with the outside air. The tank should connect, 
through a waste not less than 3 in. in diameter, into the house drain 
or sewer, preferably the latter. The waste should be trapped and 
vented and provided with a back-pressure valve. The reason that 
this class of drainage should not discharge directly into the drainage 
system or sewer is that the steam rising from it produces sewer 
pressure, against which all possible precautions should be taken. 
Water over 120 degrees in temperature should not be discharged 
into the sewer, owing to the result which may follow in the forma- 
tion of steam. 

The drainage from hot-water heating systems and from low- 
pressure steam-heating systems may, however, be connected directly 
into the drainage system, if properly trapped, without entering a 
condensing tank. 

The drainage from hydraulic elevators, lifts, and other similar 
apparatus which is direct connected, should not be discharged directly 
into the drainage system, but should first enter a tank, in order that 
it may be discharged from that point into the sewer without pressure. 
Tanks used for this purpose should be trapped and vented and pro- 
vided with a back-pressure valve. 



Plate X 

THE STALL SINK— HORSE TROUGH- 
FROST-PROOF WATER CLOSETS 



>^/aAe 10. 



H^rsz Shall 







^2 oi^2t 2 73 Q <=>rer' 
Sfo22 <^2%J^ 



^^:^:^ 1^^ r^^f4^ (^ Kvi t^-.^ 




/ 

C.2.<§2I32Z , 
Qh^Llf J'xS', 

f- <=- ^Y-o 2:^ d. f2:3e 



C2e ojz °uf 




^Jajz V2e?r y <S/-o22 C773d (S2jz2t 



THE STALL SINK 

In modern stables much attention is given to the proper drain- 
age of horse stalls. Although not of so much moment when stables 
are located at a distance from dwellings, or in sparsely settled dis- 
tricts, the horse stalls of stables that are located in sections devoted 
to residential or business purposes should be provided for in the same 
manner as any other plumbing fixture. This applies to private stables, 
livery stables, engine-house stables, etc. 

The drainage of the horse stall is best accomplished by the use 
of a specially constructed cast-iron stall sink, the four sides of which 
pitch toward the center, from which point the waste is carried off. 
Below the sink a special fitting is provided which bolts to the sink 
and caulks into the cast-iron waste pipe. The waste and vent should 
be of 2-in. cast-iron pipe, cast iron withstanding the action of the 
acids in the waste much more effectively than wrought iron or steel. 

The waste line should enter a trap located as close to the stall 
as convenient, and provided with two 2-in. cleanouts. 

Two cleanouts may be used by taking the vent from a tee located 
next beyond the trap, instead of from the trap itself, as shown in 
Plate lo. The use of cleanouts wherever possible on work of this 
nature, is a necessity, as even the utmost precaution will not serve to 
entirely prevent the entrance of solid matter into the drain. A clean- 
out at the end of the horizontal cast-iron waste, as shown, will prove 
of much value. 

A perforated cover is provided with the stall sink, its purpose 
being to prevent as far as possible, the escape of solid substances into 
the waste pipe. 

The stall sink should be set well toward the rear of the stall, as 
shown in the plan view, in order to best serve its purpose. 

The sink should be covered by a skeleton trap door, through 
which the liquids may find their way into the sink. 

Even when provided with these drainage facilities, the horse stall 

soon becomes foul smelling, owing to the foul nature of the solids 

and liquids deposited; but if the sink is thoroughly flushed out with 

the hose each day, it may be kept in a comparatively clean condition. 

69 



70 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 



THE HORSE TROUGH 

The plumbing of the stable is not complete without the properly 
connected horse trough. The horse trough is generally made of cast 
iron, and may be provided with a standing overflow to guard against 
the overflowing of the fixture. 

Its waste should be 2 in. in size, and its vent i^ in. The drain- 
age pipes of stables are generally of cast iron, as the presence of 
strong acids in the waste soon causes wrought iron to deteriorate. 



FROST-PROOF WATER CLOSETS 

Several forms of water closet are now made, designed especially 
for operation in places exposed to extreme cold, such as unheated 
stables, yards, etc. Water closets for this purpose cannot be of the 
ordinary style, that is, with the trap combined in the fixture, as the 
contents of the trap would be in danger of freezing. Therefore long 
hoppers are generally used on frost-proof water closets, the trap 
being generally of cast iron and located below the closet at sufficient 
depth to avoid danger of freezing. Various methods are employed 
in providing a flush. In some cases the flush is direct connected, 
while in other cases galvanized cylindrical flush tanks are used. The 
flush tank is sometimes placed in a pit below the water closet, and 
sometimes on the wall above it. 

In the latter case the tank fills only when the seat is occupied. 
When the seat is released, a heavy weight attached to it opens the 
flush to the closet and empties the tank, any water standing in the 
piping draining through a small pipe into the trap. 

When the tank is located below the floor it remains empty except 
when the seat is occupied. When the seat is pressed down, the tank 
fills with water to whatever extent the pressure will compress the air. 
When the seat is vacated the weight attached tips the seat up, closing 
the inlet to the tank, opening the flush to the closet, and the com- 
pressed air forces the flush through the fixture. When frost-proof 
water closets are located in cellars or basements of such buildings as 
factories, warehouses, and other buildings occupied, but not used as 
dwellings, they should be vented and local vented. 



Plate XI 

CONNECTIONS FOR S-TRAPS— VENTING 



C^nnz^cti^ns 

f^r sS Traps 



Plohz IL 




n'9 A- 



<^ 




rtg c 




fig-B- 



n^ 



r=:^ 



rig. o. 





rig- E. 




^n" 



m 



Figr 



CONNECTIONS FOR S-TRAPS— VENTING 
The trap and its vent are so closely allied that it is best to con- 



sider them under the same heading. 



The trap is a vessel containing a body of water, the duty of 
which is to obstruct and prevent the entrance of sewer air and gases 
into the house. All plumbing ordinances recognize the necessity of 
a trap under each fixture, and upon the application of proper prin- 
ciples in its construction, installation, and venting, a large part of the 
successful operation of the modern system of plumbing depends. 

A trap to be entirely satisfactory and sanitary should possess a 
good seal, be self-scouring, non-siphonable, have the least possible 
opportunity for the collection of filth, have no partitions within itself, 
and depend upon no mechanical contrivance to make a seal. 

To secure all these features in the same trap is a difficult matter, 
but the claim is made for several traps now on the market that they 
meet these requirements, and the non-siphonable requirement having 
been solved, they require no venting. 

If an absolutely non-siphonable trap could be produced, there 
would be no need of the venting system, and the cost of the average 
plumbing system would thereby be reduced approximately one-third. 

It is true that several traps have been introduced which have 
withstood severe siphonage tests remarkably well. A very important 
question arises, however, as to what results these traps will show 
after they have been in service for a time, become fouled and in 
other ways reached the trap's normal condition. Some few plumb- 
ing ordinances now allow the use of these so-called non-siphonable 
traps without the use of the trap vent. The vast majority of ordi- 
nances, however, still adhere to the venting of the trap as a safe- 
guard against siphonage, and it would seem at the present time a 
wise stand to take. 

Before considering the special subject of S-traps, it will be well 
to consider some of the general features of the trap question. 

By the seal of the trap is meant the depth of water between the 
outlet of the trap and the dip, that is, the depth of water which pre- 
vents the entrance of gases from the sewer. 

73 



74 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

A safe depth of seal is 2 in. 

A much greater depth of seal might be secured for many traps, 
but the argument against it is that it presents a larger body of stag- 
nant waste than is necessary. A small seal is dangerous, as it may 
more easily be destroyed by evaporation. Evaporation is a great 
menace to the trap seals of fixtures which do not have their seals 
renewed in the everyday use of the fixture; and the conveyance onto 
the trap seal of air through the trap vent increases the evil. 

Internal partitions are dangerous, for sewer gas may pass into 
the house through defects that may exist in the partition above the 
water line. 

Formerly traps with mechanical seals were much in use, but are 
now generally prohibited. The mechanical device employed was 
usually a heavy ball or float, which gave opportunity for the collec- 
tion of grease and other filth about itself, resulting in the stoppage 
of the trap. 

The trap seal may be destroyed by back pressure, capillary 
attraction, momentum, evaporation, and siphonage. 

The trap seal may be forced by back pressure, that is, the pres- 
sure of gases generated in the sewer. 

This evil has been practically eliminated by carrying the vertical 
stacks through the roof, but was a serious matter in the old-style 
system, in which each stack ended at the highest fixture. 

The action of capillary attraction takes place in the trap when 
threads, pieces of cloth, etc., happen to dip into the seal and extend 
over into the outlet. By this means, a drop at a time, the seal may 
be, and often is, broken. There is no remedy that can be applied to 
this evil, for its existence is never known. A trap may lose its seal 
by momentum, that is, in flowing out of the trap, the rush of the 
waste is so strong that it may carry a part of the seal with it. 

This is the tendency in some traps working on the centrifugal 
principle. In these traps the waste inlet and outlet are on a tangent, 
resulting in a whirling motion which is so strong as to endanger the 
seal. These traps have great scouring qualities, which is an excellent 
feature. 

Occasionally traps on top floors may lose a part of their seal by its 
being blown out by gusts of wind passing over the top of the stack. 

Siphonage, however, is the worst evil which the trap has to con- 
tend with. For the purpose of the consideration of the action of 



CONNECTIONS FOR S-TRAPS— VENTING 75 

siphonage it is considered that the trap in Fig. A, Plate 11, is with- 
out a vent. 

In that case, if a vacuum or partial vacuum were formed by any 
means in the lower part of the trap outlet, the atmospheric pressure 
exerted on the house side of the trap seal would force the contents 
out of the trap into the waste pipe. In other words, the contents 
would be sucked out of the trap. If conditions are such that a 
vacuum is produced as above, the only way in which siphonage of 
the trap can be prevented is by bringing a supply of air into the trap 
at or near its crown. 

The siphon consists primarily of a bent tube, one arm being 
shorter than the other. After the vacuum has been created, and both 
arms filled with water, the action continues because the falling of 
the greater weight of water in the long arm exerts a suction on that 
in the short arm. If the two arms were of the same length, the 
weight of each would balance that of the other, and the result would 
be that the water in each arm would fall by gravity, at once empty- 
ing both arms of the siphon. It will be seen, then, that the trap with 
its outlet, almost always represents the ideal form of siphon, for the 
middle leg of the trap is short and under atmospheric pressure, and 
the outlet is generally much longer, and at its lower end often subject 
to influences which tend to produce a vacuum. In order, then, that 
the entrance of air may break the siphonic action, the air must be 
admitted at or near the crown of the trap. That there are many 
influences in the plumbing system tending to produce a vacuum may 
be seen in the text under Plate 36, in which this subject is taken up 
more extensively. 

The vent pipe connected at the crown of the trap is the 
means employed to prevent trap siphonage, and to date it is the 
only practical means. Various experiments have been tried to pre- 
vent trap siphonage without employing an expensive vent system, 
but to no avail. Having now covered some of the features which 
apply to traps in general, the consideration of the S-trap will be 
taken up. 

This trap is more extensively used than any other form of trap. 

The S-trap and the drum trap may be considered as the funda- 
mental forms of traps, all other traps now in use being based upon 
one or the other in their operation. 

Much debate has arisen as to the relative advantages of these 



76 lylODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

two forms of traps, but it is not the purpose of the author to enter into 
the controversy. Facts concerning the advantages and disadvantages 
of each will be given, the reader reaching his own conclusions as to 
which is the more perfect trap. 

The S-trap, owing to its form and to the fact that its passage 
throughout is of the same size, possesses excellent self-scouring 
qualities, a most desirable feature in traps. 

On the other hand, there is no other trap so susceptible to the 
action of siphonage as the S-trap, and it would be very unsafe to 
install this trap without providing it with a vent. Upon the proper 
application of the vent the successful operation of the S-trap largely 
depends. The greatest difficulty which the trap vent has to contend 
with is the accumulation of grease, hair, lint, etc., about the opening 
of the vent into the trap. 

So great is this evil that it is an acknowledged fact that in a very 
large majority of instances the vents of traps that have been in use 
for a number of years are undoubtedly inoperative, owing to com- 
plete stoppage of the entrance of the vent into the trap. 

Patent devices to prevent this have failed. Cleanouts on trap 
vents, as shown in Fig. D, are seldom used, owing to the fact that 
the existence of the trouble is usually unknown, and the need of the 
remedy therefore not appreciated. 

The nearest approach to a vent which will not close up is the 
connection shown in Fig. F, in which the vent is taken from the top 
of the waste fitting. This method is known as continuous venting, 
and is of such acknowledged excellence that it is taken up at length 
under Plates 26, 27, and 28. 

S-traps are made in three styles, the full S, three-quarter S, and 
half S. 

In the latter two forms the vent may be taken off at a consider- 
able distance from the seal, as seen in Figs. C and E. Such a con- 
nection is preferable to that of either Fig. A, B, or D, for there is 
not so great a tendency to throw the waste up into the vent as in 
the three connections named. 

There is one other feature which makes the work of Fig. C 
preferable to that of Figs. A, B, and D. 

Air is supplied to the trap seal at such a distance from it, that 
the rate of evaporation will be materially less than in the case of the 
other three connections. 



CONNECTIONS FOR S-TRAPS— VENTING 



77 



The vents in Figs. B and D being taken off further from the 
trap seal than in Fig. A, their rate of evaporation will be less. 

It may be stated, however, that the connection shown in Fig. A 
is the one most commonly in use. Although evaporation is not so 
dangerous a factor as siphonage in connection with traps, it is much 
more to be feared than would appear at first thought. 

This is particularly true of traps under fixtures which are sel- 
dom used, or traps of fixtures in houses that are vacant, as is often 
the case during the summer season. 

The S-trap, when used to serve the bath tub, is often found very 
inaccessible when it is desired to clear it of stoppage, for the trap 
screw, so convenient in most positions, is in this case very difficult 
to get at. 

Flooring must usually be taken up to get at the cleanout. 

In Fig. E is shown a very desirable method of providing a clean- 
out for the bath trap. The cleanout being brought flush with the 
floor, any stoppage may be removed without taking up the flooring. 

The sizes of traps are, viz. : 



Traps for water closets, 


4 in. diameter 


" " slop sinks, 


3 ' 




" " kitchen sinks, i>4 


or 2 ' 




" " laundry tubs, 


1/2' 




" " bath tubs, 


1/2' 




" " urinals. 


1/2' 




" " lavatories. 


iM' 




" " other fixtures. 


1/2' 





Every trap should be provided with a cleanout on its inlet side 
or below the water level in the trap, and the overflow from each fix- 
ture should be connected on the inlet side of the trap. Through 
carelessness and ignorance the overflow is sometimes found connected 
to the sewer side of the trap, thereby forming a by-pass through 
which gases and odors from the drainage and sewer system may 
enter the house. The trap should always be set level with respect 
to its water seal. Otherwise the available depth of seal will be 
lessened, and the seal possibly entirely lost. 

Traps located under floors should have cleanouts accessible from 
above the trap, except in cases where the trap is accessible from the 



78 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

floor below, owing to the form of floor construction, as, for instance, 
in factory work. The waste from a fixture should never pass through 
more than one trap before entering the house drain. The effect of 
passing waste through two traps is to cause air-lock between the two 
traps, which impedes the natural flow of the waste and results finally 
in a stoppage of the waste. 



Plate XII 



CONNECTIONS FOR DRUM TRAPS- 
PRACTICAL REQUIREMENTS OF VENTING 



for Drum Traps 



P/aZ-e /Z, 



Ri 



rd 



^ 



I^ 



R^ 



F^9 A 



V 




r/g. B, 



p=> 




r=^ 



r^9 <^- u 



1^=^ 



v:i 



E^ 



f/p- o. 



KX 



I .' 

I I 
I I 

LJ 



r/g- ^- 



f^ 



^ 



r-v 
I I 



rr 



I I 
I I 

LJ 



r^pr 



^ 



K^ 



^ 



5 



rig. o. 




I I 
I I 

I I 

I I 

LJ 



ng- H. 



(^ 




rc^ 



^ 



^ 
^ 



rig- K- 



CONNECTIONS FOR DRUM TRAPS 

The drum trap for general fixture use is 4 in. in diameter, and 
into it are wiped the inlet and outlet waste pipes. The trap, then, 
represents an enlargement in the waste from a pipe of 1%, i^, or 
2-in. diameter to 4 in., and under this condition it cannot be expected 
that the drum trap will possess the scouring qualities to be found in 
the S-trap. The drum trap, however, certainly possesses one very 
strong point. While the S-trap is the trap most easily siphoned, the 
drum trap is one of the most difficult to siphon. In fact, under any 
ordinary working conditions the drum trap is practically non-siphon- 
able. Special tests of great severity have shown that at least a part 
of its seal may be siphoned, but these tests subject the trap to con- 
ditions far more severe than they encounter when installed on the 
plumbing system. The strong point of the drum trap is that, unlike 
the S-trap, it holds a large body of water, and when subjected to 
siphonic influence, such action takes place through a passage of the 
same diameter as the waste pipe, allowing the remaining body of 
water to fall back and form the seal. 

While acknowledging that the drum trap is far less subject to 
siphonage than the S-trap, it should be vented, in order that every 
possible precaution may be taken to eliminate this danger and to give 
the entire system the benefits to be derived from thorough ventilation. 

It would seem a poor policy to maintain a radical stand against 
the use or in favor of either the S- or the drum trap. A better course 
is to select the form of trap to be used after considering the nature 
of the fixture which it is to serve, and the special conditions under 
which the plumbing system acts. 

For instance, in country districts, where venting is not always 
used, it would appear to be good practice to make free use of the 
drum trap. Wherever the continuous vent can be applied to the trap, 
however, the use of the S-trap will give excellent results. 

The drum trap is of special value in serving the bath tub, as it 
may be easily cleaned, and very often a better pitch can be secured 
for the outlet pipe than in the use of the S-trap. It is also well 



82 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

adapted to the laundry tubs, as it will easily receive the inlets from 
the several compartments, and may be placed in a more advan- 
tageous position than the S-trap, often avoiding a long line of hori- 
zontal waste extending from the farthest section to the S-trap. The 
drum trap is often used to serve two or more fixtures, but this is a 
practice which should not be followed, as each fixture should have its 
own separate trap. 

Connections to the drum trap may be made in a great variety 
of ways, several of the more common connections being shown in 
Plate 12. 

The connections of Fig. A are no doubt the most common, but 
the trap so installed is open to an evil which is not often considered. 
The trap screw is made tight by means of a rubber or leather 
gasket, and unless this joint is perfectly tight, direct communication 
with the sewer will exist. It is almost impossible to open this clean- 
out after the gasket has been in use for some time without destroy- 
ing it, and a defective joint is very liable to be left. There are a 
number of ways in which this danger may be avoided. Fig. G shows 
a method of using the drum trap so that any defect in the cleanout 
gasket will at once be made apparent by leakage from the trap. The 
cleanout may be placed at the bottom or on the side, as shown by 
dotted lines. In either case it is not only submerged, but allows the 
trap to be cleaned to better advantage. Many ordinances now require 
the cleanouts of fixture traps to be submerged. 

Fig. B shows a trap which is well guarded, having its outlet 
submerged, in which case, when the trap screw is removed, there is 
no direct communication. 

This method of connection, however, is open to a serious ob- 
jection. By taking the outlet from the bottom of the trap, where the 
heavy parts of the sewage collect, and thereby making the outlet 
pipe form the trap, there is much greater liability of stoppage. 

In Fig. C the outlet ends inside the trap, dipping down into the 
seal, and thereby preventing direct communication with the sewer 
when the trap screw is removed. Although gaining this point, the 
part of the outlet inside the trap forms an obstruction, and there is 
opportunity for the collection of grease, etc., around it. The interior 
of the trap should always be free from any obstruction. 

Fig. D shows a trap in which the vent is connected through the 
cleanout cover. Many ordinances prohibit a vent connection of this 



CONNECTIONS FOR DRUM TRAPS 83 

kind on the ground that no vent connection should be made by means 
of a union and gasket. 

There is still another objection to this form of vent connection. 

All traps sooner or later have to be opened and cleaned out, and 
in this case to remove the cleanout the vent must be bent around out 
of the way, which is not only an annoyance but harmful to the vent. 

In Figs. E and F the outlet pipe is shown dipping down to the 
bottom of the trap. This is done to prevent direct communication 
when the cleanout cover is removed, but is a bad practice, for two 
reasons. In the first place, it takes up space in the trap, and forms 
an obstruction around which collections of foul matter may form. 
In the second place, either of these two forms of trap is very much 
more liable to siphonage than would be the traps in Figs. A and B, 
for the inlet and outlet openings are close enough together to prac- 
tically form an S-trap, which is very susceptible to siphonage. 

Fig. H shows a trap which is compact in the manner in which 
its connections are made, but which has the same fault that is found 
in Figs. C, E, and F. 

This trap will siphon more readily than when connected as in 
Figs. A and B. 

Fig. K shows a trap provided with a continuous vent, that is, a 
connection so made that the vent may be taken off the waste fitting. 
As stated in connection with S-traps, this method is an excellent one. 

It is taken up thoroughly under Plates 26, 27, and 28. 

In the case of Fig. K, the fault is the same as in Fig. A, that is, 
there will be direct communication with the sewer whenever the 
cover is removed. The same trap reversed, however, so that its 
cleanout is submerged, overcomes this objection. 

Therefore, in summing up, it would seem that the trap shown in 
Fig. G, connected like that shown in Fig. K, would present the drum 
trap under the most favorable conditions possible. 

PRACTICAL REQUIREMENTS OF VENTING 

The matter of venting appears in the plumbing system in sev- 
eral ways. In the first place there is the soil or waste vent through 
the roof, the main lines of vent into which the individual trap vents 
connect, the trap vents themselves, the fresh-air inlet, and the local 
vents of water closets, urinals, and slop sinks. Local vents and the 



84 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

fresh-air inlet have no connection with the system of trap vents, and 
will not be touched upon under this plate. The soil and waste vents, 
main vent lines, and trap vents are closely allied, however. 

One of the chief steps toward the improvement of the plumbing 
system was taken when soil and waste stacks were carried through 
the roof instead of being allowed to end at the connection of the top 
fixture. Even without the use of trap vents the roof vent was of 
great benefit, as it was often the means of preventing the creation of 
siphonic conditions, which meant the siphonage of the unvented traps. 

In addition, it proved a successful remedy for back pressure 
from the sewer, as the latter could not force the seals of traps, for 
the reason that the roof vents relieved any such pressure. 

It is generally through the soil or waste vent that air is brought 
into the main vent lines of the plumbing system, which in turn 
deliver the air to the traps through their separate vents. 

The trap vent should be as direct in its course from the trap to 
the main vent line as possible, in order that the passage of air may 
be secured with as great an amount of freedom as possible. 

Each fixture vent or trap vent should incline upward through- 
out its course, in order that any condensation forming in it may be 
conducted back into the trap. The trap vent should in all cases enter 
the main line of vent above the fixture which it serves. When the 
vent is thus properly connected, and a stoppage occurs in the trap 
or the fixture waste, the waste from the fixture will back up into 
the fixture, thus giving warning of the trouble that exists. If the 
vent pipe is connected below the fixture, however, the waste in 
the event of such a stoppage will not back up into the fixture, but 
will flow off through the fixture vent into the main vent line, and 
thence into the drainage system, thus defeating the purpose of the 
vent system, and making of the trap vent and main vent a waste 
pipe for the fixture. 

Each fixture trap should be separately vented, but vents from 
several fixtures may be connected into a single branch vent, provided 
this branch runs above the highest fixture of the group. 



Plate XIII 

SOIL PIPE AND SOIL PIPE CONNECTIONS 



5o/7 Ripz 

C<^nnecf'f<=>n'S 



R/a/-(Z /3. 




Ver/-2coI 
^^ <SfocR 



Joizze 



Cleois'=>u/ 



\ 






[V-1 



) c 



7 [ 



r^9'A 



i TTg 0223 

^^Q/Jdj^a ugh 



f:::^ 






rig a. 



r^^ 

^ 



r<$^ c. 



Q^Iojzge 



M 



T 



•s 



J I 




0<^ 



l7zcr€0<^er 



z±. 



Iffi 




Veisf 



7?3o27e 
SfocJt 



, .1 2i^/o ^o^^^^e 
L> J jQ>ra2 2^ 

rig. D. 



77§0223 Vez^f 
2780223 (SfocTt 



Ve2^/ /o 

Q^2jc/u2^e 



77^0225 

rig r 



^ 




fit^Gr' Rroc/'/ce 



^ 



SOIL PIPE AND SOIL PIPE CONNECTIONS 

Properly, soil pipe is any pipe through which the waste from 
a water closet passes, and waste pipe is any pipe receiving waste 
from any fixture or group of fixtures -other than the water closet. 
The term soil pipe is often used to designate cast-iron pipe of any 
size and for any purpose in connection with the plumbing system. 

The latter is the sense in which it will be referred to in the con- 
sideration of the present subject. 

Soil pipe is of two weights, " Standard," and extra heavy, the 
latter being far preferable in general, owing to the fact that it may 
be cast more evenly, with fewer defects, sand holes and cracks, and 
that it may be cut and caulked with less liability of cracking pipe 
and fittings. 



WEIGHTS PER FOOT OF CAST-IRON PIPE 



Diameter 


Extra Heavy 


Standard 


Diameter 


Extra Heavy 


Standard 


2 in. . . . 


S'A lbs. 


3>4 lbs. 


6 in. . . . 


20 lbs. 


10 lbs. 


3 in 


gYz lbs. 


4^ lbs. 


7 in. . . . 


27 lbs. 




4 in. . . . 


13 lbs. 


6y2 lbs. 


8 in 


33>^ lbs. 




5 in.... 


17 lbs. 


8 lbs. 


10 in. . . . 


45 lbs. 





It is sometimes required by plumbing ordinances to use soil pipe 
that is plain and uncoated, it being usually coated inside and outside 
with asphaltum or tar. The coating often covers defects, which in 
the uncoated pipe would appear and be remedied. If plain pipe is 
used it should be coated after being tested. The joints on cast-iron 
soil pipe should be made of molten soft lead poured onto a firm body 
of caulked oakum, the lead being caulked even with the top of the hub. 

The approximate weights of lead necessary for each joint 
are, viz. : 

87 



88 



MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 



2-m. caulked joint i lb. 8 oz. 



3-in. 
4-in. 
5-in. 
6-m. 
7-in. 
S-in. 
lo-in. 



u 

iC 

ii 
il 

IC 



2 




4 




3 








3 




12 


(< 


4 




8 


(( 


5 




4 


(( 


6 








7 




8 


a 



It is generally unsatisfactory to give such a table as the above, 
of the amount of lead necessary for caulked joints of different size, 
as one workman may use much more oakum than another, and a 
correspondingly less amount of lead. Therefore it will no doubt be 
found that the table published will not agree always with the prac- 
tice of different workmen. There is a rule, sometimes used in esti- 
mating the amount of caulking lead, calling for one pound of lead 
for each inch in size of the respective joints; thus, 3 lbs. for a 3-in. 
joint, 4 lbs. for a 4-in. joint, etc. In estimating the total amount of 
lead to be used on the cast-iron piping, it is necessary simply to esti- 
mate the number of hubs on fittings of different sizes, and the num- 
ber of lengths of pipe of different sizes, adding the amounts of each 
size together and multiplying by the weight of lead used per joint. 

Thus a Y or tee would call for two joints, the third joint on the 
spigot end, being estimated on the straight pipe. 

An allowance for waste, shrinkage, and extra fittings, should 
always be added to the estimated amount of lead. 

It is sometimes necessary to make a rust joint on soil pipe. This 
should be done by caulking into the hub a ring of oakum, and filling 
the remaining space with a putty made by mixing together sulphur, 
iron filings, and sal ammoniac. 

Connections between cast-iron pipe and lead pipe should be 
made by connecting the lead pipe to a brass ferrule by means of a 
wiped solder joint, the ferrule being caulked into the cast-iron hub. 

Overcast and cup joints are often weak and imperfect, and 
should not be used. 

Connections between cast-iron pipe and wrought-iron or brass 
pipes should be made by means of a caulked or screw joint. All 
horizontal soil pipes, whether for drainage or venting, should, when 
possible, have a uniform fall of ^ in. to the foot, but never less than 



SOIL PIPE AND SOIL PIPE CONNECTIONS 89 

34 in. to the foot. A less amount of pitch brings the pipe nearly 
level, and stoppage and sluggish flow of waste is liable to result. 
A grade on vent pipes is necessary in order that condensation may 
be carried off. 

All changes in direction of soil pipe used on the drainage system 
should be made by means of Y-branches and sixth, eighth, or six- 
teenth bends. 

This connection is shown in Fig. A, Plate 13, and applies whether 
the change in direction is made vertically or horizontally. A clean- 
out should always be used in the end of the Y in order to control 
that section of the piping. The change in direction made in Fig. B 
is entirely wrong, the quarter bend not being permissible on any part 
of the drainage system. 

It is allowed, however, on the fresh-air inlet, vent lines, rain 
leaders, and floor and yard drains. 

The tee should not be used on any part of the drainage system; 
the T-Y being allowed on vertical lines when it is impossible to use 
the Y-branch, but not being allowed on the horizontal piping. 

The object in restricting the use of these fittings on the drainage 
system is to secure for the waste flowing through the drainage sys- 
tem as natural and unimpeded a passage as possible. 

Double hubs should not be used on the drainage piping, as in 
their use a rough end of pipe is always exposed where the pipe was 
cut off, and on this end, lint, paper, etc., in the sewage is liable to be 
caught. 

The use of double-hub pipe will often avoid the use of double hubs. 

The double T-Y is another fitting which should not be used on 
horizontal work, as the waste entering one side of the fitting will 
cross and enter the branch on the other side, instead of entering the 
main line only. 

Vertical stacks should be straight whenever possible, but when 
offsets are necessary they should be made with 45-degree fittings. 

Any building in which plumbing fixtures of any description 
are installed should have at least one stack extending through 

the roof. 

Whenever a vertical line receives waste from a fixture on any 
floor, it should extend through the roof, if 10 ft. or more from the 

nearest stack. 

The following sizes of soil and waste pipes should be followed: 



go MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

Each soil pipe should be at least 4 in 

Main soil pipes for water closets on two, three, or four floors . 4 " 

Main soil pipe for water closets on five or more floors 5 

Main soil pipe for tenement houses of more than three stories . . 5 

Branch soil pipes 4 

Main waste pipe for kitchen sink 2 

Main waste pipe for sinks, lavatories, or laundry tubs on five 

or more floors 3 " 

Main waste pipe for six or more fixtures, not less than 3 " 

The following sizes for main vent lines should be followed: 

Main vent for 4-in. soil-pipe line 2 in. 

Long branch vent lines 2 " 

Main vent for stack serving sink, laundry tubs, and lavatories . 2 " 

Main vent for line of water closets on three or more floors. ... 3 " 

Main vents for tenement houses of more than three floors. ... 3 



a 



ii 



ii 



Additional main-vent sizes will be found under Plate 36. 

The main vent line may be run independently through the roof, 
or it may be reconnected to the main soil or waste pipe above the 
highest fixture vent. The latter connection is shown in Fig. C, Plate 
13, and it has certain advantages over the independent roof connec- 
tion. In the first place, it saves cutting an extra hole through the 
roof, and the smaller the number of pipes passing through the roof 
the less will be the danger of leakage, and the less unsightly will the 
roof appear. In addition, the circulation of air through the vent sys- 
tem will be better, owing to the influence of the warmer air of the 
main stack in keeping the air in motion. 

This connection may be made into the vent fitting shown in 
Fig. C, into an inverted Y-branch, and in the use of wrought-iron 
main vent by means of a tapped fitting on the main stack. When the 
pipe is to be increased through the roof, the vent line may enter the 
main stack through an increaser, such as shown in Fig. F, provided 
with a side hub or tapping. The lower end of the main vent should 
be reconnected to the main stack, as shown in Fig. D. 

This connection allows all condensation and collection of rust 
and scale to be carried off into the drainage system, and in addition, 
it gives rigidity to the work, the danger from leakage due to acci- 
dental blows, settling, shrinkage, etc., being largely eliminated. 



SOIL PIPE AND SOIL PIPE CONNECTIONS 91 

Fig. E shows a very common but undesirable method of con- 
necting the lower end of the main vent to the fixture vent of the 
lowest fixture. 

It will be plainly seen that all scale falling through the main 
vent will collect in the bend at the foot of the line, and such collec- 
tions of rust and scale often present a serious difficulty. 

In Fig. F is shown a common method of making the roof connec- 
tion. Some plumbing ordinances require a 2-in. stack to be increased 
to 3 in. in passing through the roof, and a 3-in. stack increased to 
4 in., that is, each pipe less than 4 in. in size shall be increased one 
inch in size. 

Most ordinances, however, allow no pipe of less size than 4 in. 
to pass through the roof. The latter is the preferable method, for 
the reason that 2 and 3 in. and smaller sizes of pipe will sometimes 
entirely close up with hoar frost formed about the opening above the 
roof, this accumulation being produced from the steam rising through 
the stack. In increasing the size of pipe, long increasers, such as 
shown in Fig. F, should be used, and the increaser located not less 
than one foot below the roof. 

Caps or cowls should not be used to cover roof pipes. In the 
case of roof pipes of tenement houses whose roofs are used by the 
inmates, the openings should be protected by the use of a wire basket, 
but under other conditions it is preferable to keep the opening entirely 
free, as even the wire basket gives opportunity for the collection 
of frost. 

The roof pipe should extend two feet above the roof. When- 
ever the roof is used by the inmates, all pipes passing through it 
should be carried up at least 6 ft. above the roof. Roof pipes should 
terminate not less than 3 ft. above any window, door, or air shaft 
that may be within a distance of 12 ft., and such pipes should not 
terminate within 6 ft. of any chimney or flue. 

When carried above the roof, pipes should be securely stayed 
to the roof. Many styles of roof flanges are in use, the most com- 
mon probably being that of Fig. F, in which the hub is riveted to a 
flange of sheet copper, which may be slipped under the slate or 
shingles above the pipe, and over them below it. Adjustable roof 
flanges will fit a roof of any pitch. A very desirable form is one in 
the use of which the plumber is not required to go onto the roof to 
pour the lead joint. 



92 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

A change has in recent years come about in the use of materials 
on the drainage and vent systems of the plumbing system. Years 
ago all piping of the plumbing system was of lead. This was fol- 
lowed by the use of cast iron on both main drainage lines and vent 
lines, with branch wastes and vents of lead. 

Although much cast iron is still used on main vent lines, a large 
part of the main vents of modern plumbing systems are now con- 
structed of wrought-iron pipe, and the branch vents as well, until at 
the present time a large majority of trap vents are of wrought iron, 
excepting in certain sections of the country that still adhere to lead 
work. 

The present tendency, especially on large work in the large 
cities, is toward the use of wrought iron and brass for fixture wastes, 
and a very excellent feature to be noted in their use is that cleanouts 
at bends may be used, whereas this was not done in the use of lead 
wastes. The use of brass pipe for drainage purposes is excellent 
practice, but the cost of brass pipe is so great that, excepting on the 
higher grades of work, its use is limited. 



Plate XIV 

SUPPORTING AND RUNNING OF SOIL PIPE 



Supp<^r/'rng <=>f 

So// R/pz, 



P/ote 14. 




rfg A 



r<A| 



iae\ 




^sa 




£ 



u 



■-^<=>°Ac5 



rtg D- Rc^or Rracficz 



Verfjcol q 



Clanzp 




MrJcIe 



^ 



VerfjcoJ 
Sfaclz 




j^^ 



j^i 



^ 



Pipe-Sup- 



SUPPORTING AND RUNNING OF SOIL PIPE 

Too much care cannot be exercised in the running and support- 
ing of soil pipes. They are generally made tight by caulked lead 
joints, which are easily made defective when moved in any way, 
owing to the great weight and leverage of the pipe. Few plumbing 
systems that have been in use for a number of years would show 
perfect joints under test, and in many cases this condition is due to 
imperfect supporting of the pipe. 

When a vertical line drops to the cellar bottom, it should rest 
upon a thick flagging or upon a brick or stone foundation, as in Fig. E. 

Care should be taken in building such a pier during the winter 
season that there is no frost beneath it, which would allow the pier 
and stack to settle when it thawed. 

Brick or stone piers should also support a horizontal line run- 
ning above the cellar bottom, particularly at points where vertical 
stacks enter it. The use of piers to support horizontal lines running 
below the cellar timbers is preferable to long hangers, as in the use 
of the latter the pipe would be inclined to swing if subjected to side 
pressure. 

There are now on the market pipe-supporting fittings, as shown 
in Fig. G, which can be made to support piping running at any given 
grade. When there is no firm cement cellar bottom, these support- 
ing fittings should rest on wide flaggings. 

Equal care should be used on overhead piping, some ordinances 
calling for overhead running of all pipes. 

In supporting overhead pipes, hangers of the pattern shown in 
Fig. A should be used, and the pipe should be supported once in each 
five feet. Some ordinances call for a support in each ten feet, but 
the above provision is better. 

Fig. D shows a practice, generally prohibited, of using hooks 
for the supporting of pipe. 

The hanger is firmly supported at each end, the pipe resting 
between the two supporting points ; in the use of pipe hooks, how- 
ever, the weight of the pipe, owing to the form of the support, will 

95 



96 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

cause it to sag, and though the sag may often be very sHght, it will 
generally be sufficient to cause defective joints. 

All vertical lines of soil pipe should be supported at each floor 
by iron bands placed just below the hub or under the branch of a 
fitting. 

These bands are made of flat wrought iron, and should have the 
strength of ^-in. round iron, and should be securely fastened to the 
timber with screws. 

The support should be made on a vertical timber if possible, as 
the danger of settling or sagging of a horizontal timber is greater. 

A practice sometimes followed is to cut the pipe in such a man- 
ner that it supports itself on a hub at each floor, as shown in Fig. C. 

For hangers for 2- and 3-in. soil pipe, ^-in. wrought-iron rod 
should be used; and J/2-in. rod for 4- and 5-in. pipe. 

That there is great need of every precaution in running and 
supporting soil pipe may be seen when it is considered that a 4-in. 
stack in almost any ordinary residence or dwelling will weigh at 
least 550 lbs., without taking into account any branches or fittings, 
and pipe of larger size will weigh very much more. 

Furthermore, when the entire system is filled with water during 
the water test, this weight is raised to a much higher amount. 

Stacks passing through the roof and carried several feet above 
it in order that their upper ends may be above all roof openings or 
above adjoining windows, should be given special support, as the 
pressure of the wind against them is at times very strong. 

When roofs of tenement houses are occupied and used by ten- 
ants, as often happens, there is the additional danger of blows against 
the pipe. Such pipes should be supported by three or four stout 
wrought-iron rods firmly secured to the soil pipe, run off at an angle 
and secured to the roof. A wrought-iron collar placed around the 
pipe and above a hub, provides a good means of attaching the rods 
to the soil pipe. Another method is to tap the pipe and secure the 
rods by bolts. 

Vent pipes from cesspools when required to run vertically in the 
open for a number of feet should also receive special support. 

A very good method of providing such support is to set in the 
ground, close to the cesspool, a heavy pole which will not sway under 
the pressure of the wind, and run the pipe vertically against it, sup- 
porting the pipe under each hub by wrought-iron bands. 



SUPPORTING AND RUNNING OF SOIL PIPE 97 

The present excellent practice of connecting main lines of vent 
pipe to their main soil and waste stacks above the highest fixtures, 
and below the lowest fixtures, is a good practice, as it ties the work 
together, giving rigidity to it, and, in the event of settling, allows 
both lines to settle evenly without resulting in an unequal strain on 
the two lines that would result to a greater extent if not thus con- 
nected. The settling of a line of cast-iron pipe often results in pull- 
ing apart the caulked lead joints, especially if the line is not properly 
supported. For instance, a vertical line that may happen to be well 
supported in its upper sections, but poorly supported at lower points, 
is very liable to pull apart from the section that is securely fastened. 
This sometimes results in pulling the caulked lead joint entirely out 
of the hub. 

The great necessity will thus be apparent, of securing vertical 
lines firmly throughout their course, and of providing support at the 
foot of each stack which cannot possibly settle. One of the chief 
advantages to be gained in the use of wrought-iron drainage and vent 
piping, in the construction of the Durham system of plumbing, is that 
the screw joints of such pipes will not pull apart in the settling of 
stacks, as the caulked joints of cast-iron piping will do when the pipe 
is not properly supported. As far as a vertical pull on a vertical line 
of screwed pipe is concerned, it will have no more effect on the joint 
than on the pipe itself in pulling it apart. 

However, if proper precautions are taken, vertical lines of cast- 
iron pipe may be installed even in high buildings without danger of 
pulling apart. 



Plate XV 

THE HOUSE OR MAIN TRAP AND FRESH 

AIR INLET 

LOFC. 



zO 



0<^nsl-ruchi<^n of 

Frzsh Air Inlzt 



P/0/-Z 15. 




i\^/ni/ #4A \h-^n^ 



1^1 



I I 



Com 



I 



J L 





%=^ 



<=^;.c 



Cle ais<=i-uf 

J7S0J73 Jq^jtoit^ 




1 



-J7^022Z <s7x^qjq> 



R*«n 



■=r^ 



rig B. 




C2co2Z<=>zzf'<£> 



-HT 




72^022^ e/jrajD 

CZec773'=>zz/J 




Ut-i 



\Co2?2r*ied. 
77^0223 Ie)z^a2T5 



u-^ 



t^ 



/"/5?. C. 



CIea2^<=>zz/'<£> 




^'^ 



723 a223 <^z*aj^ 





I 1 



THE HOUSE OR MAIN TRAP AND FRESH AIR 

INLET 

In the construction of any plumbing system, one of the first 
things to be decided is whether the system shall be protected by a 
main trap or not. 

The question is a debatable one, and has been since the intro- 
duction of the trap itself. Plate 15 shows three methods of installing 
the main trap and its accompanying fresh-air inlet. From these 
illustrations it will be seen that the main trap is placed on the house 
drain at a point as close to the place where the drain leaves the 
building as possible. 

The object of this trap is to prevent the entrance into the plumb- 
ing system of gases and odors from the sewer. 

At first thought, the entrance of gases into the plumbing system 
would not appear to be harmful, especially as it has abundant oppor- 
tunity to rise and escape through the roof pipes. However, although 
the plumbing system of to-day is subjected to rigid test after being 
constructed under rigid ordinances, there are numerous ways in 
which gases rising through the plumbing system may enter the house. 
The settling of floors and foundations may result in rendering soil- 
pipe joints defective; the soil piping is seldom properly supported, 
and often settles or sags through its own weight, causing the same 
kind of trouble. These and other conditions that might be named 
are of such universal occurrence that it is safe to say that only a 
comparatively small percentage of plumbing systems that have been 
in service for a term of years would be able to show perfect joints 
under test. Even though the plumbing system, with all its various 
connections, may be perfectly tight, still the danger of entrance of 
sewer gas is not always eliminated. 

Traps of fixtures not in everyday use often lose their seals in a 
comparatively short time, as do floor drains, cellar drains, etc. 

Whenever repairs are to be made on the soil piping or on branch 
wastes, sewer gas has a free passage until the repairs are completed. 

Whenever the water closet is removed for repairs or to be 

renewed, sewer gas has a free entrance until it is replaced. Many 

101 



I02 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

other instances might be given in which the gases and odors from 
the sewer may find their way into the house. 

The main trap is provided as a means of preventing this result. 

The opponents of the main trap claim that it obstructs the flow 
of sewage through the house drain, that the trap will soon stop up, 
that in cold weather it will often freeze. These objections are not 
serious, and in many cases are more fancied than real. To be sure, 
the outflow is somewhat impeded by the trap, but the gain in pro- 
viding protection to the house would much more than offset such 
difficulty. The strongest and practically the only real argument 
against the use of the main trap is that it prevents the ventilation of 
the public sewer through the roof pipe of the building. The weigh- 
ing of the questions which arise in this connection is a very difficult 
matter. 

In the first place it does not seem to be right to make a venti- 
lating flue of each stack in each dwelling house, through which the 
sewer may throw its gases, to escape into the houses through defects 
and openings. 

At the same time, the main drain and stacks present at present 
the most available means of ventilating the sewers, and are therefore 
often made use of. The closed sewer should not be tolerated, and 
the present method of venting the sewer through perforated manhole 
covers is open to serious objection, as it allows direct communication 
between the streets and the sewer. Special vent stacks should be 
erected at high points in the sewage system, through which the sewers 
might vent themselves, but such means are not provided, and there- 
fore not to be considered. 

It is claimed that where a free passage exists between the sewer 
and the outer air through the roof extension of the plumbing sys- 
tem, a circulation of air will be kept up, by means of which fresh 
air will be drawn into the sewer through the manhole covers, and 
the foul air drawn out through the roof pipes. If it were not for the 
matter of exposing the interior of the house to the admission of 
sewer gas this would unquestionably be an excellent plan. 

Some go even further, and claim that enough fresh air would 
he drawn in through the manholes to render the gases harmless. 

This does not seem reasonable when it is considered what a 
small area the manhole perforations really represent, and that a large 
percentage of these holes are closed up with dirt, ice and snow, etc. 



HOUSE OR MAIN TRAP AND FRESH AIR INLET 103 

If the house could be guaranteed against the entrance of gases, 
there are certainly many places in which the delivery of them into 
the air above the houses of the community would be followed by no 
harmful results. 

In our towns and cities, however, with odors and gases escap- 
ing through every roof pipe, a heavy atmosphere must force them 
down to such points that they may often enter windows, light 
shafts, etc. 

In our large cities, also, where low buildings adjoin high ones, 
it would seem very poor policy to banish the main trap, for without 
it the pipes through the roof of the lower building are constantly 
throwing their impurities out, to be drawn into the rooms on the 
higher floors of the high building. 

That they would be drawn in in this way there is no question, 
as the circulation of the warmer air of the building would often 
create a suction sufficient to draw in the outer air. 

In the case of tenement houses, also, whose roofs in the summer 
season are occupied by the inmates, the escape of a constant stream 
of sewer gas would seem to be a thing to be dreaded. 

Another, and a very strong point against the employment of 
plumbing systems having no main trap, is the fact that under such 
conditions air contaminated with disease germs coming from the 
human excreta of any infected house on a line of sewers, may find 
its way through defects in the plumbing systems of other houses on 
that line, and thus gain entrance into the living apartments of the 
inmates. Plumbing systems should always be so installed that there 
may be no opportunity for such occurrences as this, whether in the 
manner just mentioned or through local vent systems, which have 
been known to carry infection from one to another apartment in 
the same building. 

For this reason, as well as for other reasons, it is always poor 
practice to connect the drainage system of one house into that of a 
neighboring house. Such practices were more or less common years 
ago, but since the matter of sanitary conditions has begun to receive 
its proper attention, the connection of two or more houses to the same 
house drain or sewer has been strictly prohibited. 

It would seem that there is an opportunity for the display of 
good judgment in the employment of the main trap. In sections of 
a city where the houses are detached, as in the residential sections. 



I04 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

it would be wiser to do without the main trap than in the more densely 
populated sections. 

The use of the main trap makes necessary the use of the fresh- 
air inlet, which, as shown in Plate 15, must be connected on the house 
side of the trap. The purpose of this pipe is to bring into the plumb- 
ing system a supply of fresh air, and to create a circulation of this 
air through the system and out through the roof pipe. It also serves 
to prevent air lock between heavy bodies of waste flowing down the 
house drain and the seal of the main trap. 

If the fresh-air inlet were connected on the sewer side of the 
main trap, it would not only fail of its purpose of supplying air to 
the system, but would form a direct vent for the sewer at a particu- 
larly bad point. 

The fresh-air inlet should under no conditions receive drainage 
of any sort. Formerly the fresh-air inlet was connected to the trap 
itself, as shown in Fig. A, which method allowed but one cleanout 
to be used on the trap, whereas two should always be used. Experi- 
ence proved, however, that this connection had another disadvantage, 
from the fact that it brought in a current of cold air directly upon 
the trap seal, which resulted in the chilling and sometimes in the 
freezing of the water in the trap. Even though not frozen, the chill- 
ing of the waste caused the grease to separate from the sewage and 
cling to the inner surface of the trap, making ultimate stoppage more 
possible. 

The freezing and the stoppage of the trap are two of the argu- 
ments against its use, but by the employment of proper means these 
results may be largely overcome. The fresh-air inlet, when properly 
constructed, is taken out of a fitting placed next to the trap, on the 
house side of it. This fitting may be either a tee or a Y, as shown 
in Figs. B and C. The more bends there are in the pipe, and the 
more indirect its course, the less will be the possibility of chilling 
and freezing. 

The fresh-air inlet should never end at a point within 15 ft. of 
any door, window, or cold-air box supplying heating systems. The 
reason for this is that when heavy volumes of sewage pass through 
the house drain, a discharge of foul air passes through the inlet. 
This same trouble also occurs sometimes owing to a heavy atmos- 
phere. When the fresh-air inlet ends at a distance greater than 15 ft. 
from any opening into the house, it may terminate at the outer face of 



HOUSE OR MAIN TRAP AND FRESH AIR INLET 105 

the foundation, as seen in Fig. B. In this case its end must be pro- 
vided with a perforated cap, or with a bend looking down, in order 
to prevent different articles, such as stones, etc., from being thrown 
into it. It must usually be carried out into the lawn or yard to cover 
the requirement, in which case it is often constructed, as shown in 
Fig. A, with a ventilating cap covering its end, or ending in a return 
bend, this bend ending at least one foot above the ground. In busi- 
ness districts, where such devices as the return bend and ventilating 
cap could not be used, the fresh-air inlet should open into a box, 18 
in. square, located below the level of the sidewalk, and at the curb. 
The bottom of this box should be at least 18 in. below the under side 
of the end of the inlet pipe. 

The box may be constructed of brick or flagging, or of cast iron, 
and covered with a flagstone provided with a removable iron grat- 
ing leaded into the flag. The grating should have small perfora- 
tions in order that refuse may not pass through, and the total area of 
the perforations should at least equal the area of the fresh-air inlet. 

Another method of running the fresh-air inlet is to carry it 
through the roof, as seen in Fig. C. 

In general, this adds considerable expense without giving much 
added value. An objection to it, especially in the case of the ordinary 
house where there is but one 4-in. stack, is that the weight of air in 
the stack and in the fresh-air inlet about balances, with the result 
that there is but little circulation. This method, however, is but 
seldom used. 

As to size, the fresh-air inlet for traps up to 4 in. in size should 
be of the same size as the trap. 

For traps larger than 4 in. it may be less than the size of the trap. 

For 5- and 6-in. traps the fresh-air inlet should be 4 in. in 
diameter. 

For 7- and 8-in. traps, the fresh-air inlet should be 6 in. in diam- 
eter ; and for traps larger than 8 in. it should be 8 in. in diameter. 

Care should be taken that the main trap is set level, in order 
that none of its seal may be lost. When located below the cellar 
bottom, it should be made accessible either by setting it in a brick 
manhole provided with a removable cover, or by making depressions 
in the cement bottom so that the cleanouts may be easily reached. 

The connection shown in Fig. B, whereby it is made possible to 
use an end cleanout, is an excellent one. 



io6 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

With two cleanouts on the main trap, and this end cleanout, the 
house drain at this point is well guarded against any possible stop- 
page. The connection referred to is now demanded by the ordinances 
of a number of different cities. All connections into the drainage 
system must be made on the house side of the main trap. 

An exception to this rule is made in the case of rain leaders, 
which are sometimes run outside the foundation walls, in which case 
they may be connected into the house sewer on the sewer side of the 
main trap. Such rain leaders must be properly trapped. The main 
trap is sometimes located underground, outside the foundation walls, 
in which case it must be made frost proof and accessible. This is 
done by setting it below the freezing level, in a brick or stone man- 
hole, covered with a flagstone. When so located, the fresh-air inlet 
should never be taken off the trap, as the passage of cold air would 
be so direct as to cause trouble. 



Plate XVI 

FLOOR AND YARD DRAINS— SUBSOIL 
DRAINAGE— THE CELLAR DRAINER 



f/Qor Drains ^ Cz//or Dro/ns 







3^ 



J—Veisf- 



1 



ng/i 



J2& Ce2 lo J* J^<=> /■/-<=> j:rB 



J 



i 



Vei^f 





P 



^j^aQ$<^j7SQ a2r^<^zz.2z d CeJ2aT> 







^.sf'»„ w. =.>v. NV^.^/u>V;-,>v. >^>^-^>)r-.<-i>v>^r>^.,'> 



'J 



^lil^d Jq>2-'0223 ^ JP'^X'^ZZ^S 



TreJI 278 
Ce.22ZC2zf 



'^ dJile TTj-fJs Jo<=><=^<se q7'<=>j23/<:S ■ 




ng- c 



7 



Coi^l^jed. 22s/o J2§02J^ jQ>7*a22B 



FLOOR AND YARD DRAINS 

Floor drains are much used and of much value on large work, 
especially in public toilet rooms for hotels, depots, stables, etc. 

The size of floor and yard drains should never be less than 3 in. 
in diameter, and very often, where there is much service required 
of them, and where there is any danger of solids of any description 
entering them, 4 in. is preferable. 

The drainage of yards and areas in congested business districts, 
and in densely populated districts, is a matter of importance to the 
public health. Under such conditions, all areas, yards, paved courts, 
and courtyards should be properly drained. 

This applies especially to tenement-house districts. The com- 
mon form of floor and yard drains is of the style to be seen in Fig. A 
■of Plate 40, provided with a removable perforated cover. There are 
several special forms of drains, such as those shown in Figs. A and 
B of Plate 16, some of them being provided with a vent connection. 
Ordinarily, however, drains of this description do not require vent- 
ing, but may safely be installed without it, as in Fig. C. 

Floor and yard drains should always be provided with deep- 
sealed traps. The deep seal is a special feature of the trap in Fig. A. 

An excellent form of trap which will fill this requirement is one 
made of quarter bends. This trap is generally of the half-S form 
and may be easily constructed of three quarter bends. The use of 
a very deep seal on this class of work is not to be feared, as it would 
be in the case of polluted drainage, for all drainage passing through 
such drains is composed practically of clear water. In the case of 
other drainage a very deep seal would allow too large a body of 
sewage to stand in the trap to putrefy and make the system more 
impure than there is need of. The drain of Fig. B, with its flushing 
device, is an excellent one for many purposes, particularly for use 
in hospitals and on other work where general conditions must be as 
perfect as possible. 

The flushing rim and jet with which the drain is provided allow 

the entire surface to be thoroughly cleansed, and the cleansing is 

accomplished without wetting the floor. By means of properly 

109 



no MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

arranged supply connections, the trap may be flushed with hot or cold 
water, or with both. 

The seal of this trap is of much greater depth than that of the 
ordinary floor drain. The connection of the water supply with drains 
of this description is an excellent idea, as a very small drip may be 
provided which will insure a permanent seal in the trap. Yard 
drains, for instance, in times of drought, and especially when not 
provided with deep-seal traps, may become a source of danger from 
loss of the trap seal. This source of danger, by the way, is an argu- 
ment in favor of the use of a main trap. 

Many plumbing ordinances demand that floor and cellar drains 
shall be water supplied, and this is certainly a needed precaution. 

Floor and yard drains need not be separately trapped when one 
trap can be made to serve two or more drains, or where such drains 
are so connected as to be controlled by the trap of a rain leader. In 
fact, the use of a single trap, especially a rain-leader trap, to control 
one or more floor or yard drains is an excellent means of protection, 
as the permanence of the seal of such trap is more positive than the 
seals of separate traps would be. 

In many cities a separate system of sewers is used for the dis- 
posal of surface and subsoil waters, no house drainage being allowed 
to enter it. In this case all floor and yard drains, roof leaders, sub- 
soil drains, etc., should enter the surface water system. When these 
drains enter the house drainage system, however, no drainage which 
is not of clear water should be allowed to enter them. 

Vitrified earthen pipe may be used for stable drains and for yard 
drains which are not connected with any house drain. Such drains 
must always be trapped and connected to the house sewer outside of 
the connection of the house drain to the house sewer. 

When drains are of vitrified earthen pipe they should not be less 
than 5 in. in diameter. 

The practice is sometimes followed of using any convenient 
cleanout opening as a cellar-floor drain, but it is a poor practice, and 
should not be followed. 

The construction of the cellar drain is shown in Fig. C. This 
drain is naturally located at the end of the cellar at which the house 
drain passes out, as the house drain pitches in this direction. The 
cement bottom should be graded from the several sides of the cellar 
toward the entrance to the cellar drain. 



SUBSOIL DRAINAGE iii 

A catch basin or well is generally formed in the cement, and at 
the bottom of it the cellar drain trap is located. Even though the 
system is provided with a main trap, a trap should be used on the 
cellar drain. 

Without it, odors from the house drain would pass through the 
cellar drain and out into the cellar. 

The practice of double trapping on this part of the work will 
not be followed by the troubles that generally follow double trapping, 
for the passage of water from the cellar drain is seldom of large 
volume. 

It is a good plan to form in the cement bottom a small gutter, 
following around the entire cellar wall and close to it, this gutter 
being led into the catch basin of the cellar drain. By means of the 
gutter, and the grading of the cellar bottom, any water entering 
the cellar through the upper part of the foundation, or discharging 
onto the floor through leaks in the water piping, may find its way 
into the cellar drain. 

SUBSOIL DRAINAGE 

It is of the utmost importance to the health of the inmates that 
the cellar be kept as free from dampness as possible. 

In the case of damp soil, a system of subsoil drainage should 
always be employed. 

Subsoil drains are constructed of earthenware drain tile, laid 
with open, uncemented joints. The moisture of the damp soil enters 
the drain through these open joints. The subsoil drain should be 
laid completely around the cellar wall, and whenever necessary may 
have branches running in to the center of the cellar. The drain 
should be laid on a level with the bottom of the foundation wall, and 
about six inches inside of it. The subsoil drain should be laid on 
an even grade, pitching toward the catch basin to which it is to be 
connected, it being necessary to connect it always into such a catch 
basin properly trapped and entered into the house drain. 

The catch basin is generally constructed of concrete, and made 
in the form of an open well in the concrete cellar bottom, and covered 
by a stone or cast-iron cover. 

Whenever the sewer to which such a catch basin is connected is 
known to back up, the trap of the catch basin should be provided 
with a back-water valve. 



112 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

THE CELLAR DRAINER 

When the house drain is run overhead, it is clear that the cellar 
and subsoil drainage cannot be disposed of by gravity in the ordinary 
manner, as just described. The device used in raising the subsoil 
water is the automatic cellar drainer, and it is also used for remov- 
ing water from excavations, wheel pits, or other depressions where 
water accumulates. 

The drainer is placed in a pit or manhole below the cellar bot- 
tom, into which the drainage to be raised is discharged. As soon as 
the water collects to the depth of about a foot in the pit, the drainer 
opens and discharges the water. 

As the water rises in the pit, a float attached to the drainer is 
gradually raised, and when a certain level is reached, the lever to 
which it is attached opens the valve wide, allowing water or steam 
pressure to pass through the drainer, and thereby drawing or suck- 
ing the water from the pit into the discharge pipe. 

The drainer is generally operated by water pressure, this con- 
nection being made to any supply pipe. The water passes under full 
pressure through the drainer point or jet, thus creating the necessary 
suction to draw the water out. When the water has been removed 
from the pit, the valve instantly closes, and the drainer again becomes 
inactive. 

The water in passing through the jet of the drainer creates a 
vacuum, this vacuum being the means of producing the necessary 
suction. The discharge pipe from the drainer should empty the water 
of the pit, and the pressure water used in operating the apparatus, 
into a sink or pan located above the house drain, into which the 
drainage may then flow by gravity. The sink or pan should be 
trapped and vented in the same manner as any other fixture. 

In general, the cellar drainer requires a water pressure of four 
or five pounds for each foot through which the water is to be raised 
vertically. The cellar drainer is not adapted to raising water over 
12 ft. usually, and many of them lose much of their efficiency after 
passing 8 ft. 

The drainer may be located in an underground box or barrel. 
Cellar drainers are capable of raising from 250 to 1,200 gallons of 
water per hour. 

The sizes of supply pipe generally used are ^ in. for small 
sizes, ^ in. for medium sizes, and i in. and larger for large sizes. 



Plate XVII 

WATER CLOSETS— FLOOR CONNECTIONS 



H/oAer C/<>se/-s ^ n<=>^r^ 

Connecf'/<=>ns 




F'9' c- 



fig, D. 



<§<2cZer 



head 



^ras<s 




head. 
Meizd 



g a (Size/- 




rf9r- 




r'Q ^' Mejzd 




f/g. H. 



WATER CLOSETS 

Probably no other plumbing fixture or device has passed through 
such great changes and been brought from a most unsanitary condi- 
tion to a condition of such high excellence as the water closet. 

A volume might be written on the changes that have been 
wrought in its construction, but as this work is designed to deal only 
with present-day plumbing, only those fixtures now actually in use 
will be considered. 

A water closet to be sanitary should possess the following fea- 
tures: It should be protected by means of a trap within itself, this 
trap having a good seal; there should be as small an area of surface 
exposed to contact with soil as possible, and all such surfaces should 
be thoroughly scoured; the flushing of the fixture should be accom- 
plished as noiselessly as possible, and without unnecessary waste of 
water ; the trap seal should be exposed to view ; no mechanical devices 
should be employed in the operation of the fixture, with the excep- 
tion of the flush tank; and for flushing the fixture it should never be 
directly connected to the water-supply system. 

Modern water closets are superior to the old-style water closets 
of the pan, valve, and plunger styles in every respect. They avoid 
dead ends that are neither provided with water nor with ventilation; 
surfaces between the bowl and its trap, that in the old fixtures were 
protected in no way, are now submerged; the modern water closet 
is provided also with better ventilation, a stronger flush, is more 
noiseless, and is far more cleanly. 

The leading forms of water closets now in use are the washout, 
washdown, siphon, and siphon-jet, the two first named being used 
very extensively in many cities on the cheaper class of work. 

Since the principle of siphonic action has been applied to the 
water closet, however, the siphon and siphon-jet fixtures have taken 
the precedence over all other forms, and it appears to be only a matter 
of time before they will supplant the less satisfactory forms entirely. 

The four water closets mentioned above are illustrated in Plate 
17, Fig. A showing the washout style. Fig. B the washdown, Fig. C 
the siphon, and Fig. D the siphon-jet. 

"5 



ii6 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

The washout water closet is somewhat different from other 
forms, from the fact that soil, as it enters the fixture, falls into a 
shallow pool of water above the trap, from which it must be con- 
veyed by the flush into and out of the trap. The meeting of the flush 
with the resistance above the trap and with the resistance which the 
soil presents, impedes its force to a great extent, with the result that 
the water merely runs over the dip into the trap without much 
force, losing thereby much of the scouring effect that it would 
otherwise have. 

So much of the energy of the flush is used up in removing the 
soil from the upper shallow bowl that it has not sufficient energy to 
perform the work needed in driving out the contents of the trap. 
This same loss of force is to be observed in the flushing of the old 
pressure closet, in which the flush is sent around the bowl. There 
is one advantage that is not often considered that the washout water 
closet has in having its upper shallow pool. The location of the pool 
allows excreta to remain in sight, which, in the case of the sick room, 
is often desirable to the physician and nurse. For this reason the 
washout water closet is sometimes made use of in private infirmaries. 

The washdown water closet is an improvement over the wash- 
out, as the action of the flush is more severe and its scouring qualities 
therefore better. 

Surfaces, which in the washout closet are left exposed, in the 
washdown closet are submerged, making the latter much the more 
cleanly of the two. 

At length, however, the principle of siphonage was applied to 
the action of the washdown water closet, this step marking a very 
great advance in water-closet construction. 

In the washdown-siphon water closet, the outlet is through a 
horizontal leg, which is contracted so that its area is considerably 
less than that of the passage above it. As the flush enters the fix- 
ture, and the contents of the trap pass out through the vertical 
passage, the water in passing through this passage attains a much 
higher velocity than it has when it reaches the contracted horizontal 
leg. The outflow being thus retarded, the water completely fills the 
horizontal leg, and as it passes out creates a vacuum behind it. 

With nothing but the water in the trap to resist it, atmospheric 
pressure exerted on the upper surface of the trap seal, forces the con- 
tents of the trap out through the outlet and into the drainage system. 



WATER CLOSETS 117 

Atmospheric pressure is approximately 14.7 lbs. per square inch, and 
it is this amount of pressure that acts to force the contents of the 
water-closet trap. When the siphon finally breaks, enough water fills 
into the bowl to fill the trap, when it is ready for another operation. 

The application of the principle of the siphon to the washdown 
water closet allows a larger amount of the surface of the bowl to be 
submerged than possible to obtain in the same form of closet in which 
sole dependence is made on a rush of water to operate it. In the 
siphon closet there is not only a pushing force exerted by the water 
entering the fixture, but there is also the force of suction pulling the 
contents of the trap out of the fixture. 

The next step in advance in water-closet construction was the 
application of the water jet to the siphon closet, as seen in Fig. D. 

In the washdown-siphon water closet the formation of siphonic 
action depends entirely upon the filling of the outlet, and until enough 
water flows out of the trap to accomplish this the action does not 
take place. 

In the case of the siphon- jet water closet, additional aid is pro- 
vided for the complete filling of the water closet outlet. 

At the point where the flush enters the fixture, it divides, a part 
entering the bowl through the flushing rim, the rest entering a small 
passage which leads into the trap in such a way that its opening shall 
point directly up the middle arm of the trap, from which it emerges 
in the form of a jet. The force with which this jet emerges will 
help to raise the water and cause it to pass over into the vertical 
arm. The aid obtained from this jet, in addition to the natural flow 
of the contents of the trap into the contracted horizontal leg, quickly 
forms a solid plug of water, a vacuum forms, and siphonage takes 
place, as seen above. 

This entire action is very strong, and in the case of both fix- 
tures shown in Figs. C and D, all surfaces are thoroughly flushed. 
These excellent features make of these two fixtures the most sani- 
tary and most satisfactory water closets on the market. In addition, 
there is less annoyance from the noise created by flushing the siphon 
water closet than others. 

The washout water closet, with its shallow seal and its surfaces 
exposed to the contact of the soil, may be procured at far less cost 
than the siphon jet, and it may be said that this fact is the only one 
that makes its use favored by anyone who is at all acquainted with 



ii8 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

the subject. The washdown-siphon water closet may be obtained at 
a sHght advance over the cost of the washout, the difference being 
so shght that it would seem that no one desiring proper sanitary 
conditions would hesitate a second in selecting the siphon closet. 

The siphon form of water closet is the only one that should be 
used in connection with the low tank, the reason for this being that, 
although the flush inlet from the tank is enlarged to make up for the 
loss in head which is secured in the high tank, enough water cannot 
be thrown into the closet from the low tank to make the flushing 
of the fixture sufficiently strong. 

By the aid of the siphon, however, the low tank is able to pro- 
duce excellent results. 

There are numerous other water closets, working on slightly 
different construction than those shown in Plate 17, which will hardly 
be worth considering, as those already discussed are most generally 
in use. The hopper and trap form of water closet, in its various 
forms, appears, in comparison to the modern high-grade fixture, to 
be of a very primitive character, and is now generally prohibited. 

The use of the offset water closet is a practice which should 
never be allowed. This form of closet is made for use in connec- 
tion with the lead or iron trap used with the pan, pressure, long 
hopper, and other closets. 

Very often, when closets of this class were taken out, instead 
of taking out the trap beneath the floor, it would be allowed to 
remain, and the offset water closet, which has no trap, set in place of 
the old fixture. The reason that one of the modern closets could not 
be used instead of the offset closet was that there would then be two 
traps on the same fixture. The objections to the use of the offset 
water closet are that the flush loses its force before it reaches the 
trap, consequently not flushing the trap to any extent, and that there 
is a large amount of polluted surface, extending from the crockery 
into the trap below the floor, which gives off foul and unsanitary 
odors into the room in which the fixture is located. The offset closet 
is made in such a manner as to deceive those not acquainted with the 
subject into the belief that it is a fixture built on modern principles. 

The only course to pursue in renewing such work as the above, 
is to tear out the trap under the floor, replace it with a lead bend, 
and use a modern type of water closet. 

Vitreous chinaware is now used in the construction of all first- 



WATER-CLOSET FLOOR CONNECTIONS 119 

class water closets. This ware is formed of compact material, which 
is subjected to a high heat before being glazed. In the employment 
of this material there is no danger from the cracking or " crazing " 
of the glazed surfaces. In former times, before modern processes 
were employed, the crazing of the water closet was of frequent occur- 
rence, resulting in the absorption of moisture by the exposed sur- 
faces under the glazing, the fixture in time becoming foul and very 
unsanitary. 

All water closets, as well as lip urinals and slop sinks, should 
have flushing rims, so as to flush the entire surface of the crockery. 

Water closets should never be located in dark or unventilated 
places, and the practice of installing them in cellars, although fol- 
lowed to considerable extent, is not a wise proceeding. Sunlight and 
air are two powerful purifying agents, and when fixtures such as 
water closets and urinals are placed where ventilation is not pro- 
vided and sunlight cannot enter, the conditions must necessarily 
become unsanitary, and the place where the fixtures are located filled 
with impure air. For this same reason the open plumbing of the 
present day is much more sanitary and much more wholesome than 
the old-style boxed-in plumbing. 



WATER-CLOSET FLOOR CONNECTIONS 

Floor connections, although often receiving scant attention, are 
an important feature in obtaining sanitary conditions. Several forms 
of this connection are shown in Plate 17. Fig. H shows the simplest 
and probably most common connection, and at' the same time most 
unsatisfactory and unsanitary. 

This method consists in flanging the lead bend over onto the 
floor, filling the groove around the outlet of the closet bowl with a 
ring of putty, and screwing the bowl to the floor. The putty com- 
presses and forms the joint. 

In the event of pressure against the fixture, shrinking or rotting 
of the floor, this joint will break and allow a leakage of gas into the 
house. In addition, the oil in the putty often spreads and discolors 
the flooring around the fixture. 

A much better form of connection is to be found in Fig. G. Here 
the lead bend is brought up through a brass flange, and soldered to 



I20 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

the latter, as shown. A rubber gasket is placed between the flange 
and the base of the water closet, and the whole fastened together 
and made tight by means of brass bolts. This makes a connection 
which should never leak, even though there be shrinkage or settling 
of the floor on which the fixture rests. 

Fig. E shows a patented form of floor connection which also 
makes a good joint. The base of the closet is recessed to receive a 
brass-screw connection, it being made firmly to the crockery by 
cement and lead. 

A female brass-screw connection is soldered inside the top part 
of the lead bend, and the closet screwed down into it. The joint 
formed between the brass and the crockery makes the former prac- 
tically an integral part of the closet. 

Fig. F shows a floor connection for use in connection with 
wrought-iron soil pipe, such as is used for the Durham system. 

A brass floor plate or flange is screwed into the end of the ell 
or other waste fitting in use, and a tight joint made by using a rubber 
gasket between the flange and the base of the water closet, the latter 
beinsf screwed to the floor. 



Plate XVIII 

LOCAL VENTING 



/ i ly L' P/OU /8. 

<=>f kVoZ-zr Cl<=>szts 



I I 



C2z 272Z 22 ej-^ 



L-^ 





ly 




rypy^. 



:j 



^ 




/r. c. 



^ 




-S°s/. 



px C^'jsjsier 





^ 



r>9 ° 



LOCAL VENTING 

A LOCAL or surface vent is a vent provided for the purpose of 
carrying off foul odors incident to the use of the water closet. 

This pipe is also applied to the urinal and slop sink to good 
advantage. The local vent has no relation whatever to the drainage 
S3'-stem or to the back-venting system, and may be considered as a 
measure looking to the comfort of the people making use of the fix- 
tures to which it is applied, rather than as a strictly sanitary measure. 

Local ventilation differs in no way from any other form of 
ventilation. 

The system generally in use consists in connecting a pipe from 
the local vent spud on the water-closet bowl to a heated flue. A 
good feature of this form of ventilation is that it is accomplished 
without any expense of operation. As long as a sufficient difference 
in temperature between the air of the toilet room and the air of the 
flue exists, excellent results may be maintained by means of this 
system. 

The heated air of the flue being lighter because of being ex- 
panded by the heat, rises through the flue, the tendenc}^ being to 
produce a vacuum behind the column of constantly rising hot air. A 
suction is thus caused on the air in the pipe connecting to the rim of 
the water closet, and this air is drawn into the flue and forced up 
and out of it by the current of heated air. The suction is often so 
strong that small pieces of paper thrown into the water-closet bowl 
will be forcibly drawn into the local vent pipe and into the flue. The 
only point against this form of ventilation is the fact that it cannot 
always be connected to a flue which is heated throughout the year. 
It is a form of vent which is used principally in dwellings, tenement 
houses, and other buildings in which the flue to which the local vents 
are connected is not likely to be heated during the warm months. 

On larger work, such as public toilet rooms, other means are 
used for obtaining ventilation. 

However, in most cases where the local vent is applied, no other 

ventilation would probably be made use of because of the expense of 

123 



124 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

running the mechanical devices used in producing it, and it would 
therefore seem of much advantage to the inmates to be able to enjoy 
its comforts during those months when the flues are heated. There 
is this to be said concerning the months of the year when it might 
not produce results: the windows at such season of the year are 
generally wide open, and the need of artificial ventilation not so great 
as during the period when the local vent does its work thoroughly. 

It is certainly true that the toilet room provided with the local 
vent is far more wholesome than the one which is without it. This 
vent, sometimes called a seat vent, opens into the water-closet bowl 
just back of and below the seat, and while the water closet is in use 
carries ofif all the odors incident to its use. In addition, when the 
cover of the closet is down, there is sufficient space for air to enter 
the bowl and pass into the vent between the seat and the crockery, 
which are kept apart by means of rubber bumpers on the seat. There- 
fore the local vent is at all times providing ventilation not only for 
the water closet itself, but for the entire toilet room. 

In order to provide proper ventilation three factors are neces- 
sary. There must be an inward passage of fresh air and outward 
passage of foul air, and a force acting to produce the movement of 
air which results in the changing of the air. The first factor named 
is one most likely to be omitted in providing a system of ventilation. 
Foul air will not pass out of the toilet room unless other air is brought 
in to take its place. The demand for a supply of fresh air is very 
largely filled by natural means. Open windows, the entrance of 
air through window casings, etc., supply in general a considerable 
amount of fresh air. In addition, it is a fact that air passes through 
brick walls to a very considerable extent, and through the plaster- 
ing as well. 

Many plumbing ordinances do not make the use of local ventila- 
tion compulsory. Even though it is not compulsory to use the local 
vent in all toilet rooms, there are certain conditions under which it 
certainly should be used as a sanitary precaution. 

In this connection the following requirement is a good one: 

All water closets, slop sinks, and urinals should be provided with 
local vents when located in rooms which receive their light from light 
shafts, skylights, or courtyards, or when located in compartments not 
directly connected with the outside atmosphere and sunlight. The 
application of the local vent may be made more universal by provid- 



LOCAL VENTING 125 

ing artificial means of creating a draft when it is impossible to enter 
a heated flue or a flue which is always heated. IJnder such condi- 
tions an excellent method is to carry the local vents up to an airtight 
box or compartment heated by means of gas jets, the pipe from which 
should be carried 3 ft. or more above the roof, ending in an auto- 
matic ventilator. Another method of a similar nature is to provide 
a specially constructed device of the kind shown in Fig. C, Plate 18. 
This may be inserted in the main vertical line of local vent, and will 
be found to perform excellent service at only a slight cost for the 
consumption of gas. 

Figs. A and B of Plate 18 show two different systems of local 
venting. Fig. A gives the separate system of vents, in which the 
vent from each water closet is carried separately to the point where 
entrance is made into the heated flue. 

The system shown in Fig. B consists of a main vertical line, 
into which the local vent from each water closet is entered, and is 
probably more commonly in use than the system first mentioned. 
The system of separate vents of Fig. A has very decided advantages 
over the other system. 

In the event of the presence in one apartment of a contagious 
disease, it is possible in the use of the system of Fig. B to communi- 
cate the disease to the inmates of other apartments in the building. 

This would be especially true of apartments the water closets of 
which backed up to opposite sides of the same partition. In the same 
way, in the use of the system of Fig. B, conversation and other 
sounds may be carried from the toilet room of one apartment into 
the toilet rooms of other apartments. The separate system of local 
vents suffers from none of these objectionable features, and although 
certainly somewhat more expensive to install, the additional outlay 
should not be considered if the matter of freedom from the evils 
mentioned is to be secured. The local vent from a single water 
closet should never be less than 2 in. in diameter. When two, three, 
or four vents enter a main line of local vent, the main vent should 
not be less than 3 in. in diameter. 

• These are the sizes ordinarily used in the local-vent system, and 
are the sizes generally specified in plumbing ordinances, but are not 
strictly in accord with the principles that should be followed in secur- 
ing a perfect system of ventilation. 

Providing that a 2-in. pipe is of sufficient size to thoroughly 



126 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

ventilate a single water closet, at the point where the second vent 
enters, the pipe should be enlarged so that its area shall be equal to 
the combined area of the two vents which it supplies. When the 
third vent enters it, the size should be such that its area will be equal 
to the combined areas of the three branch vents. This gradation in 
the size of the main local-vent pipe is necessary if each water closet 
is to receive its full amount of ventilation, that is, if each water closet 
is to be ventilated as it would be if its individual 2-in. local vent were 
able to perform its full duties. The area of a 2-in. pipe is 3.14 sq. 
in. ; of two 2-in. pipes, 6.28 sq. in. ; and of three 2-in. pipes, 9.42 sq. in. 
The area of a 3-in. pipe is 7 in., and it will therefore be seen that 
while a 3-in. pipe is sufficiently large to provide for two 2-in. vents, 
it is not large enough to provide for a larger number. 

The main, in order to properly provide for three fixtures, should 
be 3^ in. in diameter, and 4 in. for four fixtures. While 2-in. local 
vents to the several water closets will accomplish good work, single 
vents of 2^ in. diameter will be found to do better work. When 
this size is used, it will be found that two water closets will require 
a main vent 3^ in. in diameter, and three water closets, 4^ in. in 
diameter. This shows an increase in the main local vent of one 
inch in diameter for each additional water closet, but after the third 
fixture has been added the increase in the size of the main need not 
be so great. Water closets on which the local vent is to be connected 
should be provided with a spud, which may be on the right or left- 
hand side, as may be desired. As the local vent has no connection 
with the drainage system or with the trap-vent system, it is not an 
essential feature that its joints should be gas tight. For local vents 
either copper or galvanized sheet-iron pipe is used. Where the vent 
is exposed to view, and neat-looking work is desired, the copper pipe 
may be nickel plated. All changes in direction, reduction or increase 
in size of local vents should be made with long ells, reducers and Ys. 

Y-branches and 45-degree bends are preferable to tees, as they 
make the course of the air currents more easily taken, and thus 
improve the draft. 

The local vent should pitch upward throughout its course, in 
order to facilitate the work of the vent as much as possible. Heated 
air naturally rises, and therefore it is always poor practice in run- 
ning pipes to convey such air in any other way than pitching upward 
toward the point of delivery. For the sake of convenience local vents 



LOCAL VENTING 127 

are often bent downward to avoid some obstruction, and then carried 
upward again, a very poor practice when it can by any means be 
avoided. 

Main local vents connected to a heated flue should not have an 
area exceeding one tenth the area of the flue itself. Local-vent con- 
nections with heated flues should always be made at points above the 
highest opening into the flue. If made below, the foul odors carried 
in the local-vent pipe may escape into the rooms with which flue 
openings communicate. 

Care should be taken in making the proper chimney connection 
for local vents. An excellent method is to use copper pipe for con- 
nection into the chimney, the local vent lines being connected to the 
pipe. A cast-iron ferrule may also be used for the purpose, but gal- 
vanized sheet iron should not be used, as the soot of the chimney is 
liable to destroy it after a time. 

The chimney connection may be run straight into the chimney, 
or it may be turned upward, an objection to the latter method being 
the danger of the collection in the pipe of falling soot. 

When so constructed, it is good practice to provide a cleanout 
at the outer end of the chimney connection, for use in clearing any 
obstruction. 

The pointing downward of the pipe by means of a bend inside 
the chimney obviates trouble from the soot, but results in checking 
the draft. 

When the chimney connection is run straight into the chimney 
it should project inside only slightly, as unnecessary obstruction of 
the flue space is undesirable. 

The work which has thus far been described and illustrated 
relates chiefly to the application of the local vent to residences, dwell- 
ing houses, apartment houses of ordinary size, etc. 

For larger work more extensive methods are necessary, such as 
the use of large piping, and the mechanical supply of fresh air and 
exhausting of foul air. 

In the case of public toilet rooms, underground comfort sta- 
tions, etc., means of ventilation on a large scale are extremely nec- 
essary, as the use of such rooms would otherwise result in a public 
nuisance. 

The difference to be noted in the atmosphere of public toilet 
rooms of hotels, for instance, which are provided with poor light and 



128 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

no ventilation, is great in comparison with the atmosphere of many 
of our modern, well-appointed toilet rooms of hotels, etc. 

It has become a matter of good business to make special effort 
and outlay in securing proper ventilation for toilet rooms of public 
buildings, for the public has become educated to the point where they 
will patronize only those establishments that look after these points. 

On the larger work it often becomes necessary to secure greater 
motive power for ventilating purposes than the heated flue is able to 
furnish. 

For this purpose fans are largely employed, connected as shown 
in Fig. D. Usually an exhaust fan is used to withdraw the foul air, 
and another fan to supply fresh air to the fresh-air ducts. 

This class of w^ork will be taken up again in connection with the 
subject of public toilet rooms, as also the local venting of urinals. 



Plate XIX 

BATH ROOMS 



Bath R^<^m 



M 



U^oiTz Veizf 



12^ oi 73 Ve2z /- 




BATH ROOMS 

With the advent of modern fixtures and modern methods, the 
bath room of to-day may become, with a comparatively small outlay, 
a room of great beauty, and when it may be installed regardless of 
cost, it may become a place of almost marvelous beauty. 

No other part of the plumbing system so fully illustrates the 
many advantages which the open-plumbing system has over the 
closed or sheathed-in system. 

No one attempts to make a comparison of the old-time sheathed- 
in bath-room work with that of the present day, as far as beauty and 
artistic effect are concerned. Furthermore, the open system is far 
more sanitary. 

When plumbing fixtures were sheathed in, neither light nor air 
could circulate about them, with the result that there was constantly 
a musty, if not foul, odor present. The sheathing absorbed more or 
less moisture and filth from the careless use of the fixtures, and there 
was abundant opportunity for the collection of dirt in crevices and 
corners in the use of sheathing. 

The bath room of to-day can indeed be made as clean and whole- 
some as the parlor. 

The connections for the bath room shown in Fig. A of Plate 
19 show one point of excellence which is seldom sought for by the 
plumber or considered by the architect or owner. Each fixture 
waste has a separate entrance into the soil-pipe line. When fixtures 
are installed under such conditions, the stoppage of one fixture can 
in no way afifect any other fixture. It will be of interest to compare 
the work of Fig. A with that of Fig. B. In the latter the lavatory 
and bath are connected into the same trap below the floor. Without 
doubt this method often saves expense, but the trap — any trap, in 
fact — is almost certain to be stopped up at some time, and when 
this occurs, not only one fixture but two fixtures are affected, both 
remaining out of use until the trouble is repaired, and thus causing 
a double annoyance. In addition, the trap which serves two fixtures 
must become stopped more often than the trap which serves but one. 

131 



132 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

Furthermore, quite a length of waste must be run from the lavatory 
before it enters the trap, and the filth of the interior of this trap is 
bound to give off impure odors into the bath room. To prevent this 
result as far as possible, each trap should be placed as close to its 
fixture as circumstances will allow. 

The work of Fig. A is free from these troubles, which arise from 
not entering each waste separately into the stack. 

There is another serious objection to be found with the work 
shown in Fig. B. 

The waste after leaving the drum trap, instead of being con- 
nected into a Y-branch on the soil-pipe line, is connected into the 
horizontal arm of the lead bend. Now, if a stoppage occurs in the 
lead bend, every fixture in the bath room is immediately put out of 
use, and the waste under these conditions often sets back into the 
bath tub and water closet. A less number of fittings, and doubtless 
less labor, is necessary in constructing such work, but if troubles of 
the nature mentioned do not sometimes occur, it is simply a matter 
of good fortune. 

Usually a slight additional outlay would have made such evils 
unnecessary. The wiping of the waste into the lead bend is also 
accompanied by the liability that sharp points of solder have run 
through inside the bend, forming projections against which paper 
and other material may catch and form the starting point of a stop- 
page. The only favorable thing about this lead-bend connection is 
that in the present instance it is made on the horizontal arm rather 
than into the heel of the bend, where the connection would be much 
more likely to be followed by trouble. 

It is a fact that many cities operating under strict plumbing 
ordinances, and maintaining a high standard of plumbing construc- 
tion, allow both the lead-bend waste connection and the use of a 
single trap to serve the lavatory and bath. It is also strange that 
certain cities will allow the kitchen sink and laundry tubs to be 
served by a single trap, and that occasionally one of these connec- 
tions is allowed and the other prohibited. 

It must be acknowledged that the plumber is often at fault in 
allowing such connections to be made. However, it must also be 
stated that it is often almost impossible to gain a separate entrance 
for each of the three fixtures, owing to lack of working space, loca- 
tion of fixtures, shape and size of the room, etc. 



BATH ROOMS 133 

Many times a separate entrance can be provided for the lava- 
tory, if located near the stack, by running the waste back to the wall 
and using a half-S trap, as shown in Fig. A, the waste fitting coming 
so much above the other fittings as not to interfere in any way with 
the rest of the connections. 

The architect could, in a great many cases, arrange his work to 
a great deal better advantage than he usually does. 

For instance, the fixtures, with a little study, may be located in 
such a way that the advantages just mentioned may be obtained. 
The shape and location of the bath room, the location of pipes, etc., 
may usually be worked out so that the plumbing may be installed to 
the best possible advantage. It is not the good fortune of the plumber 
often to work from plans which show that the architect has given 
much consideration to, or has much knowledge of, the requirements 
of the plumbing system. 

The plumber often finds, for instance, that in order to run the 
soil pipe as shown in the plans, an offset on the vertical line must be 
used, which is always detrimental. He also finds, especially in bath- 
room work, that he must cut into floor timbers and into uprights in 
order to conceal his work, and indeed, often cut through timbers 
and make use of a header to support it ; whereas, if the architect knew 
the requirements and put this knowledge into his work, many of these 
difficulties might easily be avoided. 

The vertical soil piping may sometimes be run in a dark closet 
adjacent to the bath room, but more often must be run inside a nar- 
row partition, or exposed to view. If it is desired to conceal the soil 
pipe, it should be boxed in, but the front boarding should be put up 
with screws, in order that it may be easily and quickly taken down 
when repairs or changes are necessary on the piping. Unless this 
provision is made, lathing and plastering must be cut out. 



Plate XX 
BATH ROOMS 



G^nnecf-fons for 

Both Rf^<:>m 







Q 



27^a2 2Z 
^ Ve2zf 



in 



n^ 



Jl^aizz Sfoclz 



m 



^# 



y^ 











^2ZCCr2Z22ZQ VeTzfdTQO 

^ TTofer* C3><sef "^ 
<2?e e (B7ejc/: 



BATH ROOMS 

It will be observed that all the waste and vent connections of 
the bath-room work shown in Fig. C of Plate 20 are of either 
wrought or cast iron, with the exception of traps, their short con- 
nections, and the lead bend. This is the style of construction that is 
rapidly displacing lead work. This change in plumbing construction 
is without doubt as it should be. To be sure, the skill of the expert 
lead worker is no longer required to any great extent on a large part 
of the present-day construction work, but the workman of to-day 
must have a far greater knowledge of physics, hydraulics, and many 
other subjects which concerned the old lead worker but little. 

Whenever a fixture is located at a greater distance than 6 ft. 
from its stack, it should not have a lead waste. The chief reason 
for this is that long lines of lead pipe are very liable to sag, thereby 
causing traps to be formed on the waste pipe. 

The lavatory in Fig. C being more than 6 ft. from its stack, a 
line of cast-iron pipe is run to it, and as the fixture is located on the 
opposite side of the room from the stack, the vent is carried up to 
the floor above, and then run over to the main line of vent, a course 
much preferable to any attempt to run the vent around the sides of 
the room. 

The latter course would often be difficult, as it would generally 
be necessary to expose the vent to view, and to run it above the 
height of the fixture, detracting much from the appearance of the 
bath room. If obliged to run the vent about the sides of the room, 
it would be necessary to use nickel-plated brass pipe in order to 
obtain a good-looking piece of work. The vent of the lavatory is 
known as a continuous vent, and above the waste fitting should be 
run of wrought-iron pipe. 

Separate entrance for the bath waste is obtained into the 
cast-iron waste, and the cleanout in the end of this horizontal line 
amply protects it in the event of stoppage. The main vent is shown 
of cast iron, also the vent for the water closet, which is taken 
from a vented T-Y, while the vent for the bath trap is of wrought 

137 



138 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

iron, and connected to the cast-iron piping l3y means of a tapped 
fitting. 

Another method of bath-room connections is seen in Fig. D. 
While separate entrances into the stack are not provided for the 
bath and lavatory, the connection of the wastes from the two fixtures 
into one pipe connected to its own waste fitting is much preferable to 
the method shown in Fig. B, Plate 19. Of course a stoppage might 
occur between the junction of the two wastes and the Y, but the 
chances are against it. Therefore there is not so much danger of a 
stoppage affecting both fixtures. In this work an S-trap is used for 
the bath, and a cleanout to the floor provided. If such a cleanout is 
not used, the flooring over the trap should be put down with screws, 
in order that the trap may be made as accessible as possible in the 
event of cleaning. 

Fig. D shows a bath room under conditions often to be found, 
that is, there are no fixtures wasting into the same stack, either above 
or below the bath room. 

Under such conditions no main vent line is required, the fixture 
vents being connected directly into the stack above the highest fix- 
ture, and receiving their air supply through the roof extension of 
the stack. That part of the stack above the entrance of the highest 
fixture waste is called the soil vent in the case of a soil stack, and a 
waste vent in the case of a waste stack. 

In the present instance, there being no fixtures either above or 
below the bath room, there are no conditions present which might 
cause the siphonage of the water-closet trap, and there is conse- 
quently no necessity of venting it, particularly as it is located on the 
top floor, close to the roof connection. Under these conditions the 
only reason for venting a water closet would be that the fixture was 
located at a considerable distance from the stack, in which case vent- 
ing might be desirable. The question may arise as to the necessity 
of venting the other fixtures of Fig. D. In the case of these two 
fixtures conditions are somewhat different, for the water-closet waste 
enters the stack above the entrance of the waste from the bath and 
lavatory, and is of sufficient volume to make the possibility of siphon- 
age of these fixture traps strong enough to demand venting, espe- 
cially as there is an additional danger that the waste from either 
the bath or lavatory may exert siphonic influence on the other. If, 
however, the lavatory entered the stack above the entrance of the 



BATH ROOMS 139 

water closet, through a half-S trap, there would usually be little dan- 
ger of the siphonage of its trap, and consequently small necessity 
for venting it. 

In the several illustrations of bath rooms shown in Plates 19, 
20, 21, and 22, no other fixtures than the three common fixtures, 
water closet, bath, and lavatory, are shown. 

In the modern, well-appointed bath rooms to be found in many 
up-to-date residences of the wealthy, however, many other fixtures 
and devices for the comfort of the household are to be found. Many 
of these bath rooms contain as many as six or eight different plumb- 
ing fixtures. Among these additional fixtures may be named the 
foot bath, sitz bath, child's bath, shower bath, and bidet. The use 
of two lavatories is occasionally noticed, the pedestal lavatory of 
porcelain making an excellent appearance. 

In addition to the above fixtures, the use of shower baths in 
connection with the bath tub, and showers in connection with the 
lavatory, is much in vogue. 

Mirrors over the lavatories, porcelain stools, bath seats, and the 
various nickel soap dishes, sponge holders, etc., also add much to the 
general style of the bath room. 

Nearly all high-grade bath rooms are now furnished with porce- 
lain fixtures, including the lavatory, a ver}^ small amount of marble 
now being used for lavatory work, as compared with its use a few 
years ago. The porcelain-lined bath so generally used in bath rooms 
well appointed, but not of the most expensive type, is generally 
painted some dull color, leaving it to be finished and decorated in 
the prevailing style of the room. 

For the bath room, nothing neater can be devised than pure 
white, and, if decoration is desired, a narrow gilt band may be used. 

Tiling is used extensively in up-to-date bath-room work, includ- 
ing floor, walls, and ceiling. 

When the tiling does not cover the entire interior of the room, 
it is generally carried up on the walls to a distance of four to six 
feet from the floor, and capped with a half round or O. G. molding. 

A very neat innovation in bath tubs is the porcelain or porcelain- 
lined tub, sheathed on its exposed sides with tiling to conform to the 
prevailing style of the room. 



Plate XXI 

BATH ROOMS 



P/a/-z 21. 
C^nnzcr/^ns f<=>n 

^^ Bath R^^m 



c25/s> e ciol 




'. .1 



a.y 



^'? 










Q^02Q2/07^^^ee 



W 



BATH ROOMS 

The bath-room connections shown in Figs. E and F, Plate 21, 
are designed to show the use of various special waste and vent fit- 
tings, which are possibly more useful in bath-room work than on 
any other part of the plumbing system. 

The water-closet waste fitting of Fig. F is along the same line 
as the vented T-Y of Fig. C, Plate 20, but is a better fitting for bath- 
room work, inasmuch as the branch is taken spirally into the side 
of the fitting, allowing the fixture to set closer to the wall. The 
water closet should set as close to the wall as practicable, as it is 
less in the way, and less liable to damage. 

The water closet is vented from a hub on the waste fitting. 

The waste fitting of the water closet of Fig. E is of similar pat- 
tern, with a special hub for receiving the waste of other fixtures. 
The work of Fig. E is almost entirely of iron pipe. 

The triple fittings on the waste and vent lines are made in vari- 
ous lengths and with different numbers of openings. By the use of 
these fittings the vents are so connected to the several traps that there 
is little danger of stoppage of the vent openings. 

The fitting shown on the main vent line of Fig. E is a very 
useful one, and may be obtained with a short or long arm, with or 
without the additional vent hub. In the construction of many houses 
the plumbing is centralized so that the bath room and the kitchen sink 
may be served by the same stack. This custom is a common one, 
and is recognized by the triple fittings, which have the third hub 
for the use of the kitchen sink. It may also be used for a lavatory 
in a room adjacent to the bath room. 

The work of Fig. F is not entirely of iron or made up entirely 
of special fittings, but is intended to show the use of some of these 
special fittings on ordinary work. The special fittings shown are 
very few in number compared to the total number of these fittings. 
They may be procured for almost any special purpose, or to fit into 
almost any place. 

These fittings are usually more expensive than ordinary fittings, 

143 



144 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

but the practiced eye will easily see how useful they are, and how 
much work they save, for instance, in the matter of wiped and 
caulked joints, which are comparatively few, considering the amount 
of work covered. 

The use of special fittings accomplishes two things: it reduces 
the number of caulked and wiped joints, and it generally allows the 
use of continuous vents, two very important features. 

Too much attention cannot be given to the lighting and venti- 
lating of the bath room. The local vent, which is described under 
Plate l8, is of very great value in maintaining wholesome conditions 
in the bath room, as it not only ventilates the water closet while in 
use, but ventilates the entire room at all times. 

In addition to getting rid of the foul air, a good supply of fresh 
air should be furnished the bath room. 

Exterior lighting should always be provided. This may always 
be done in detached buildings, but in buildings that are built close up 
to the walls of other buildings it is often a difficult matter. In the bath 
or toilet room receiving light from a light shaft, the air is usually 
lifeless and musty, and in such cases all precautions possible in the 
matter of ventilation should be taken, and the room and fixtures 
kept as clean and wholesome as possible. The existence of disagree- 
able odors in the bath room may often be traced to a source over 
which the plumber has no control, as it is as likely to occur in the 
plumbing system which is absolutely perfect as in the poorly con- 
structed system. 

This trouble sometimes arises from the use of highly scented 
toilet soaps, toilet water, etc., which are much in use in the private 
bath room, and but seldom used in public toilet rooms. 

When mixed with grease, and waste filled with impurities 
emanating from the skin, these strong perfumes give rise to heavy, 
nauseous odors, which are extremely offensive and which are often 
mistaken for escaping sewer gas. Most of the trouble comes from 
the slime in the traps and waste connections, but a source which is 
not often taken into account is the patent overflow of the lavatory 
bowl. The fact that this is a prolific source for the same trouble, 
makes it apparent that the same evil often arises in the use of the 
private lavatory in sleeping rooms, where the presence of foul odors 
is especially unhealthful. 

To remedy this evil, the strainers should be removed from the 



BATH ROOMS 145 

bath tub and lavatory bowl, and the waste connections and traps 
thoroughly cleaned out with potash or washing soda and boiling 
water. As to cleaning out the overflow, the bowl should be taken 
down and the overflow washed out in the same way. The traps and 
waste connections may be kept clean by occasionally using the alkali 
in the bath tub and lavatory, and turning on the hot water. 

If this trouble should occur in the bath room of Fig. B, Plate 
19, it will be seen that the long, unprotected lavatory waste would 
be the particular point to look to, as there is a large amount of sur- 
face here, which must constantly emit odors into the room. This 
point further emphasizes the fact that each fixture should have its 
own individual trap, located as close as possible to the fixture. 

A point which may properly be mentioned in connection with 
bath-room work relates to the painting of exposed soil piping. 

When soil pipe is exposed in the bath room it is unsightly at 
best, and to give it the best possible appearance it should be painted 
in the prevailing color of the room. 

It is not sufficient to cover it with several coats of paint, as the 
tar will soon strike through and show. 

The paint should not be applied until several coats of shellac, 
such as is used by pattern makers, are applied. The shellac will pre- 
vent the tar from striking through. 

Another point which may be of value is in relation to the clean- 
ing of marble and porcelain, which often become soiled with rust, 
oil, and other stains, which may generally be removed by a mixture 
of 2 parts of soda, i of pumice, and i of powdered chalk or whiting. 
These materials should be sifted and water added to form a paste, 
which should be applied to the soiled surface and allowed to remain 
for a number of hours, then washed off with soap and water. 



Plate XXII 

BATH ROOMS 






Vei^f<s =/■ Co<6f Ix^^j:^ 



PloieZZ. 




r^-LLOJd, 



^°t/ 



f/p. G. 



^^ 



C/2Z T^ei^ fe d 



7^ ^2^ - (Sj^Jz ^2Z- 

ok)2e <$72r'a7o) 




BATH ROOMS 

A SPECIAL feature of the bath room of Fig. G, Plate 22, is that, 
with the exception of the water-closet bend, no part of the work is 
of lead. 

Fig. C, Plate 20, and Fig. E, Plate 21, also show bath-room 
connections which are of similar general construction, but in which 
special and expensive fittings are used. 

The work in Fig. G, it will be noted, is performed by the use 
of common fittings carried in stock by all dealers. The concealed 
work may be of either wrought or cast iron. 

If of wrought iron, the pipe should be galvanized. The traps 
for the bath and lavatory should be of brass. Another feature of 
this work is that each trap is served by a continuous vent. Several 
references have been made to continuous venting, a full description 
of which is to be found under Plates 26, 27, and 28. 

In Fig. H is shown a bath room the fixtures of which are 
unvented. 

While work of this kind is not allowed in many of our large 
towns and cities, it may be, and is used to a large extent in country 
districts and in the smaller towns. 

If the work is installed in the right manner, it may usually be 
made quite safe, even though unvented. In the first place, the bath 
room is usually on the upper floor and close to the roof pipe, features 
which are of advantage, as the supply of air through the soil vent is 
quick and direct. There is practically no danger that the lavatory 
and bath will exert siphonic influence on the water-closet trap, but 
under the right conditions the flushing of the water closet may exert 
such influence on them. In the case of the bath tub, it is necessary 
usually to carry its waste into the stack below the lead bend. In 
order to give all possible protection to this fixture, its trap should 
be of the drum pattern or of some non-siphonable make, and the 
waste outlet into the stack should be as short as possible. The lava- 
tory may best be located so that its waste may enter the stack above 

the entrance of the water closet. Here it receives the most direct 

149 



I50 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

supply of air through the soil vent, and if a non-siphonable trap is 
used there will be practically no danger from siphonage. 

The same general precautions should be taken with other plumb- 
ing fixtures of the house. On an unvented system it is poor policy 
to locate a fixture in the cellar, close to the foot of a stack, and wast- 
ing into the horizontal line, as the liability of siphonage under such 
conditions is fully as great as at any other point in the system. 

Before leaving the subject of bath rooms, it will be of interest to 
many readers, no doubt, to study the fixtures and trimmings for an 
up-to-date, high-grade bath room. 

The water closet should be of the siphon-jet style, and of porce- 
lain, and should have nickel-plated flush and supply pipes, with flush 
tank finished in the natural wood, or enameled to suit the finish and 
decorations of the room. The low tank is at the present time more 
popular than the high tank, and the flush valve, doing away entirely 
with the flush tank, bids fair to become more popular than either. 

The flush valve may be exposed to view or concealed in the wall 
behind the water closet. 

The bath tub should be of porcelain, or at least porcelain lined, 
and should not be less than 5 or 5^/^ ft. in length, and provided with 
nickel-plated waste and supply fittings. The bath may be furnished 
with a shower and shower curtain. 

There is a wide choice in the selection of the bath. The efifect 
of the solid porcelain tub is massive, especially if its base rests upon 
the floor instead of upon legs. The only decoration that the bath 
should have is a narrow plain band or other decoration a short dis- 
tance below the rim. 

In lavatories, also, there is a wide range. Porcelain is prefer- 
able for fine work, and the one-piece lavatory of enameled cast iron 
comes next. 

If of porcelain, it should be furnished with porcelain legs and 
back. A very artistic fixture is the oval pedestal lavatory, which is 
massive and looks well with a heavy bath. The lavatory is much 
improved with a mirror following in its shape the general style of 
the lavatory. Nickel-plated legs or brackets may support the lava- 
tory, but do not appear to such advantage as the white porcelain 
legs. White is by all means the color for the bath room. It is cool 
and clean in appearance, and obliges frequent attention, as any dust 
or dirt that gathers shows plainly. 



BATH ROOMS 151 

Some fine bath rooms are now provided with fixtures which are 
suppHed with water in such a way that no metal shows in connection 
with any of the exposed plumbing, the entire effect being of white. 

The shower should be provided with a porcelain or porcelain- 
lined receptor resting on the floor, and nickel-plated combination 
needle and shower bath, with shower curtain. 

The bidet is not in common use, but is to be found in some of 
the best-appointed bath rooms. It should correspond in style and 
decorations to the water closet. 

The foot and sitz baths should correspond closely in their mate- 
rial, style, and decoration to the bath tub. The best manufacturers 
now carry the same style, design, and decoration right through the 
line of bath-room fixtures, so that there is no reason why all the 
fittings of the bath room should not be in keeping. 



Plate XXIII 

POOR PRACTICES IN PLUMBING CON- 
STRUCTION 



,, . ^ / /%/e 23. 







nil f 1 <27^^c7'<^ 



S 



C23277Z3Zej 



4 




™ 




■o" 










■-c-,-;->W.-7^7T? 



Y 



7S<?2 



^ 






c 







POOR PRACTICES IN PLUMBING CONSTRUCTION 

In order that the plumbing system may be absolutely safe, count- 
less points of apparently small importance must be observed. The 
difference between a strictly high-class plumbing system and one of 
medium or poor quality is to be found largely in the observance or 
non-observance of the small points. In Plate 23 are to be seen some 
of the small points which are often disregarded. The instances of 
error to be seen in the illustration are not novel or to be rarely seen, 
but are constantly being made by mechanics who should or do know 
better. These errors are often made in ignorance, and it must be 
admitted that they are also often made, especially on contract work, 
in order that the work may be made to pay bigger profits. 

Next to the main trap, a fresh-air inlet should have been pro- 
vided, as the main trap should never be without it. If the nearest 
waste stack is near enough to the main trap, it would relieve any 
air lock, but is in no sense a fresh-air inlet, so long as waste enters it. 

The two stacks enter the house drain through tee fittings, 
whereas the connection should always be made with a Y-branch and 
eighth bend. 

Fixture No. 9 should waste into a Y. 

Tees should be used on no part of the drainage system, and 
T-Ys only on vertical lines. 

The continuation of the house drain beyond the soil stack 
forms a dead end. The main vent for the soil stack should reenter 
the stack below the T-Y on the first floor, and a trap vent from fix- 
ture No. g run over into it. The ending of this main vent in the 
vent of No. 9 allows no opportunity for collections of scale and rust 
to drain out of the main vent. 

The 2-in. waste stack should have been increased to 4 in. before 
passing through the roof. No stack of less size than 4 in. should 
pass through the roof. 

Taking up the fixtures in consecutive order, according to their 
numbers, the trap vent of No. i should be taken from the lead bend, 
and not from the vent horn of the closet bowl, and the local vent 

155 



156 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

from the same fixture should not drop after leaving the closet, but 
should pitch upward throughout its course. No. 2 should have sepa- 
rate entrance into the stack through a Y-branch, instead of being 
connected into the lead bend, the proper course allowing a shorter 
and more direct connection. The vent from No. 2 should have 
entered the vent from No. i above the top of No. 2. As it is now 
connected, if a stoppage occurs on the waste of No. 2, waste from 
this fixture will run off through its vent, thence through the vent of 
No. I, and discharge into No. i. 

Fixtures No. 3 and No. 4 should be trapped and vented inde- 
pendently, and be entered separately into the stack, or into the open- 
ings of a Y caulked into the Y already in use. 

The horizontal vent from Nos. 5 and 6 pitches in the wrong 
direction. Vent pipes should always pitch upward after leaving the 
trap. The vent connection of No. 5 should have been made into 
the horizontal arm of the bend rather than into the vertical arm, 
as the latter presents greater opportunity for the collection of refuse 
in the opening of the vent into the bend. 

The waste from No. 6 should have a separate entrance into the 
stack, but if it must be connected into the lead bend it should be con- 
nected into the upper part of the horizontal arm, as the opening of 
the waste into the heel of the bend is in such a position that soil and 
other refuse matter may drop directly into it in passing through 
the bend. 

The local vent from No. 5 enters the chimney at the second floor, 
and at a point below the highest opening into the chimney. When 
all local vents are not entered above the highest chimney opening 
there is danger that foul odors carried in the vent may enter rooms 
into which openings in the chimney communicate. Fixtures No. 7 and 
No. 8 are double trapped. The waste from No. 8 should be discon- 
nected from the trap of No. 7, and entered separately into the stack, 
or at least connected to the waste from No. 7 close to the point at 
which it enters the stack. Numerous errors might be mentioned 
which do not appear on Plate 23. Some of these errors are the fol- 
lowing. Earthenware house sewers are sometimes continued inside 
the foundation wall, and the house drain connected to it by means of 
a cement joint. 

Cleanouts are occasionally used which depend for a tight joint 
upon the use of a ring of putty. 



POOR PRACTICES IN PLUMBING CONSTRUCTION 157 

Drainage is allowed to enter the fresh-air inlet, and the latter is 
often constructed of too small pipe. 

By-passes are a very common form of error, and this particular 
error often occurs in the connection of the bath overflow to the 
outlet side of the bath trap, the proper connection being into the 
inlet to the trap. When thus connected the trap is practically short- 
circuited, gases and odors passing from the waste pipe through the 
overflow and out into the room. In the absence of the main trap, a 
by-pass means that direct communication exists between the house 
and the sewer. Much poor work is to be found in connection with 
refrigerator work. Refrigerators are sometimes found connected 
directly into the drainage system without a trap, and very often 
found connected directly into the drainage system through a trap, 
which is not much better than the first-named connection. Local 
vents may be found connected into main back-vent lines, and trap 
vents into flues. The blind vent is a deception also often practiced. 
It consists in running the trap vent back to the wall, or through 
the wall, and plugging the end, no connection being made into the 
main vent. This is not so bad in its results as the blind vent with 
an open end, which is also to be found, and through which direct 
communication with the sewer exists. The blind vent has every 
appearance of being honest work, and is no more than open fraud. 
It will be seen, then, that the opportunities for error are great, and 
it behooves the owner and inmate of the house to know right from 
wrong in plumbing construction. 

The instances of poor practice in plumbing construction to be 
noted in Plate 23 are self-evident to the person who has a knowledge 
of the subject of plumbing. They are errors which the plumbing 
inspector should not pass over. At the same time there is not an 
error to be found on this plate which is of an exaggerated nature, 
and which does not often appear. 

Indeed, some of the practices which have been criticised as 
errors are not looked upon, under some plumbing ordinances, as in 
any way out of character. 

For instance, the practice of connecting the waste from the lava- 
tory, as in fixture No. 2, into the lead bend, is a method allowed in 
many cities which boast of strict plumbing ordinances. 

Poor practices are not alone confined to the methods of making 
connections, but appear in various other ways. 



158 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

The use of inferior material is a very common matter, and is 
to be met in connection with plumbing construction at almost every 
point. 

The use of light cast-iron soil pipe instead of extra-heavy pipe 
is an instance, as also the use of very light weights of lead pipe, lead 
traps, bends, etc. 

The use of light lead has reached such a point that much of that 
used on cheap work is entirely unfit for its purpose, inasmuch as it 
is so thin that it can withstand very little rough usage. In this con- 
nection it may be stated that one of the advantages in the rapid dis- 
placing of lead pipe, traps, etc., is the fact that stiffer and more 
durable materials are taking the place of lead. 

Many other instances might be named of the use of inferior 
materials, such as cheaply constructed brass work of poor metal, 
tanks lined with metal of the thinnest quality, fixtures full of imper- 
fections, etc. 

These results have been reached very largely owing to the keen 
competition of recent years. 

It is true that plumbing construction can be made possibly more 
deceptive than any other branch of building construction. One rea- 
son for this is the fact that such a large part of the work is concealed. 
Frequently, to judge from the neat appearance of fixtures, with their 
bright nickel work, the plumbing system must be an excellent one, 
whereas in reality it may be of the poorest description, for the con- 
cealed work, which is generally the most important from a sanitary 
standpoint, may be installed in any but a sanitary manner. 



Plate XXIV 

'^ ROUGHING-IN "— USE OF CLEANOUTS 



Roughing ,i^/^h l/l^^rk 

Reac/y f^r l^aZ-CK Tcsf" 




Jii^z 




4 







"^-s J:Zi /-cJz e2z 




f 2 









J£2/-c2z,ezz 
<2/2Jcfizrec5 






VeTz/'^ 






-A 2 2^ 






CIeojQ<^tz/ 



J7c^C/22^ Q72-ajc>'^ ^ — ^" 

C2c.o2z<=^zz/A 




" ROUGHING-IN " 

That part of the work on the plumbing system known as the 
" roughing-in " is shown in Plate 24. 

As will be noted, when the work has progressed to this point, 
all soil piping has been run, from a point 10 ft. outside the founda- 
tion, through the cellar, and all stacks run up through the roof, their 
vent stacks also run and completed, all waste fittings and vent fit- 
tings on mains inserted, and all branch fixture wastes and vents 
completed as far as possible. In the roughing, the fresh-air inlet is 
included, all cleanouts on the soil piping, rain leaders if they are to 
enter the drainage system inside the cellar, all floor and yard 
drains, etc. 

In fact, when the roughing is complete, little should remain to 
be done before the fixtures are set in place. The water test is gen- 
erally applied to the plumbing at this point. This, when properly 
applied, is a most thorough test, and a test which cannot be applied 
after the walls are plastered. 

Therefore, in the roughing, just as much of the work should be 
included as possible, in order that as much of the piping and as many 
of the joints as possible may be tested with hydraulic pressure. 

Therefore, all fixture wastes and vents should be completed if 
practicable, or brought as near completion as possible. 

The vent for the water closet may almost always be completed, 
unless nickel is to be used. Traps that are located under floors may 
usually be placed in position, inlet connections made as far as pos- 
sible, and the outlet into the stack completed. All ferrule connec- 
tions, whether on the vent or on the drainage system, should be made 
before the roughing can be considered complete. It will be noted 
that sizes for all pipes in the plumbing system of Fig. 24 are given, 
these sizes corresponding to the sizes demanded in most plumbing 
ordinances. 

In the case of the kitchen sink, however, some ordinances now 

require a 2-in. waste instead of i^ in., a requirement which is in 

the line of good practice. 

161 



i62 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

When the fixture wastes are roughed in, great care should be 
taken that the long runs of lead pipe beneath floors are properly 
supported. 

If not supported, the lead pipe is very sure to sag, thus forming 
traps in the waste. The best method is to support straight runs of 
lead waste on boards, properly secured. 

Fixture wastes of greater length than 6 ft. should always be run 
of more rigid material than lead, either of cast or galvanized wrought 
iron or of brass. 

As elsewhere noted, nothing but coated cast-iron pipe should 
ever be used underground, as the action of the moisture of the earth 
is very harmful to wrought-iron or steel pipe, and also to unprotected 
cast-iron pipe. There is really no necessity for coating cast-iron pipe 
that is not buried, with tar or asphaltum, for, excepting when under- 
ground, there is rarely any harmful action that takes place. 

CLEANOUTS 

The connection shown on the sewer side of the main trap in 
Plate 24 is an excellent one, and is a practice now demanded wher- 
ever possible by many plumbing ordinances. 

The chief value of such a connection is that it allows a cleanout 
to be used in the end of the Y-branch into which the main trap 
discharges. 

This cleanout controls the straight run of house drain into the 
house sewer, and a considerable length of the latter, while the clean- 
out at the opposite end of the house drain controls that section of the 
drain, and the two cleanouts on the main trap complete the entire 
control of the house drain and house sewer. 

Nothing can add more to the worth of the plumbing system than 
the intelligent and liberal use of cleanouts. The money invested in 
cleanouts is a good investment always, for their use often saves not 
only much annoyance, but avoids the breaking into pipes to remove 
stoppages. 

Every trap on the plumbing system, with the exception of water- 
closet traps and other traps combined in the fixture itself, should be 
provided with a cleanout. All cleanout screws should be of brass. 
Cleanouts for use on soil piping are of two kinds, entirely of brass 
or having the body of iron and the screvv^ of brass. 



CLEANOUTS 163 

The latter is known as the iron-body cleanout. The threaded 
parts of cleanouts should have at least six threads, tapered, and of 
iron-pipe size. Cleanouts should be of the full size of the pipe or 
trap which they serve, up to a diameter of 5 in., and not less than 
5 in. in size for larger traps. 

Cleanouts should always be used in the ends of Ys into which 
vertical stacks connect, as shown in Fig. E, Plate 14, and in the ends 
of all horizontal branches of soil or waste pipes. Quarter bends 
being used on rain leaders, cleanouts used on their traps must be 
depended upon for cleaning purposes. 

A cleanout should be used at each change in direction of hori- 
zontal piping. By this means each run of piping is fully controlled 
in the event of stoppage. 

The cleanouts thus far mentioned are known as end clean- 
outs. 

In long runs of horizontal waste and soil pipe it is often neces- 
sary to provide cleanouts at intermediate points. Special cleanout 
fittings are made for this purpose, into which the cleanout cover 
screws. 

They should be placed not farther than 30 ft. apart, and a more 
liberal use of them can be made with advantage. 

All cleanouts should be made tight with a gasket, and no clean- 
out depending on the use of putty for a tight joint should be allowed. 

All cleanouts in main traps that are underground, or any other 
cleanout that is underground, should be made accessible by means 
of depressions in the concrete bottom, and cleanouts outside the walls 
of the house should be located in accessible manholes. 

The gasket generally used on cleanouts is of rubber, and if the 
gasket has been in use for a considerable length of time, it is almost 
certain to be destroyed in removing the cleanout cover. If not de- 
stroyed, it is probable that it has become so hard and lifeless that, if 
again used, a tight joint cannot be made. Therefore a new gasket 
should be used on a cleanout whenever the cover is removed, after 
having been in use long enough to get into this condition. 

Another form of cleanout, not extensively used, however, makes 
tight by means of a ground joint. The advantage of this cleanout 
is that it is free from the objectionable features incident to the use 
of gaskets. The ground joint is also often easier to open than the 
screw joint. 



i64 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

The foregoing remarks apply only to cleanouts used on the large 
drainage piping. 

There are certain additional facts to be considered also, concern- 
ing cleanouts on other parts of the plumbing system. 

Whenever brass and galvanized-iron pipe is used for waste pur- 
poses, cleanouts should be liberally used at points where a change in 
direction occurs. 

All drum traps located under floors should have their cleanout 
covers flush with the floor, in order to make them accessible without 
the removal of flooring. Such cleanout covers may be concealed 
beneath nickel-plated covers or guards screwed to the floor. The 
cleanouts of all traps should be on the inlet side of the trap, and sub- 
merged wherever possible. Submerged cleanouts show an imper- 
fect joint by leakage, whereas the same imperfection in the case of 
a cleanout not submerged might remain undetected for an indefinite 
length of time. 

Cleanouts on fixture vents are demanded by the plumbing ordi- 
nances of certain cities, but in a vast majority of cases it is probably 
a practice which has little value. The reason for this is that usually 
use of the cleanout is by the inmates only, who know so little con- 
cerning the purpose of the vent and of the cleanout that it is almost 
never made use of. When there is a stoppage of the waste it makes 
itself known at once, but a stoppage of the vent opening is never 
known, and consequently the remedy, by means of the cleanout, never 
applied. 



Plate XXV 

TESTING OF THE PLUMBING SYSTEM 
THE WATER, AIR, SMOKE, AND 
PEPPERMINT TESTS 



0: 



F^/umb/ng Sysf-^m 

^""# m -^ 



J232ef 



Q4 



1 




JbeacZez* 





C'=^j:zi^<zc/2<=>2^ h 



F^/um b ing un c/e r 




. -^ JO^ ^-L. ^-^ ^ <S <o 



J^ uh 7q) er ^a c2z22zo 



^ 



T^^ 




(SjQIO^A <£zQC^ 



<Sj2z^Jze. ©Tec?/ 



<a70Gj/2>s 



f/g, B. 



■■g 



ffOT A21 (^7c>e2Z22zg 



rS 



r-^ 



jp? 



/ 



1"^' 



t 




d^j^ e rsTs yi 2Z* 
^a22z Ji:>eacie2r 



f ^zi//Jr 



C^JS2Zec/2o2Z 

77^ (7cAi2z e 



? 



r^9' c. 

Rlumbing under ^m^ke Te^sh 



TESTING OF THE PLUMBING SYSTEM 

All properly arranged plumbing ordinances now demand that 
two tests shall be applied to each newly constructed plumbing sys- 
tem — one when the roughing has been completed, and the other when 
the entire plumbing system has been completed and is ready for use. 
No drainage pipe, vent pipe, or fitting should be concealed in parti- 
tions or between floors or buried underground until after the first test 
has been applied and the work inspected by the proper official. 

These tests are for the purpose of ensuring correct work, free 
from defects arising in construction and manufacture. There are 
four different methods of testing the plumbing system — the water 
test, air test, peppermint test, and smoke test. Of these, the water, 
peppermint, and smoke tests are most commonly used. 

The water and air tests are chiefly used as the first test on new 
work. When it comes to the final test, either the peppermint or 
smoke test may be applied. Each is thorough when properly applied. 

The question as to which is the better test is open to debate, each 
test having certain advantages and possible disadvantages. 

Before the final test is applied, all fixtures should be in position 
and the system entirely complete, and the traps filled with water. 

On old work in residences and other finished and occupied build- 
ings, the water test cannot be applied, owing to the damage that 
might result. Under these conditions, either the peppermint or 
smoke test should be used. The testing of old work should be done 
much oftener than it is, as it is of much value, not only in showing 
defects in joints and the material for piping and connections, but also 
in disclosing by-passes and other wrong connections, stoppages, the 
loss of trap seals, the absence of traps on rain leaders and drains, etc. 

THE WATER TEST 

The water test is applied to the roughing of all new work, unless 

water is not at hand or there is danger of its freezing, in which case 

the air test may be applied. 

167 



i68 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

Plate 24 shows the plumbing system ready for testing. All 
openings must be closed. Lead bends, traps, and pipes must have 
their ends soldered, and wrought-iron pipe ends must be capped. 
The ends of pipes, bends, etc., should be closed when the roughing 
is completed, without regard to the test, in order to prevent refuse 
of any kind from entering the system. 

Soil-pipe openings should be closed by specially devised stoppers 
or testing plugs, as shown in the three illustrations of Plate 25. 

These openings would include the house-drain outlet, fresh-air 
inlet, rain leaders, floor drains, etc. 

If the stacks do not end above the roof on or near the same 
level, the shorter stacks should have their open ends plugged. 

With the plumbing system thus prepared, water is filled into 
the system until it overflows from the highest stack onto the roof. 

The test is generally made by the plumber, in the presence of 
the plumbing inspector, and the water is generally required to stand 
for several hours before being drawn off. 

This is for the purpose of exposing leaks which sometimes do 
not make themselves known for a time. 

Defects often do not appear until the water has been standing 
long enough to thoroughly soak through the oakum. Water may be 
filled into the system through any opening, the fresh-air inlet often 
being a convenient point. 

Testing plugs are made with a provision allowing water to pass 
through them, for the purpose of filling the piping. Such a plug, 
with its connection, is shown in the fresh-air inlet of Fig. A. Sev- 
eral different makes of testing plugs that do good service are now 
on the market, several forms of which are shown in Fig. B. 

The most common form is that shown at the right-hand end. 
It makes tight by means of the expansion of a heavy rubber ring 
against the inner surface of the pipe. The ring is expanded between 
two iron plates brought together by a large hand nut. 

Plugs of this description will not generally hold much over 50 
lbs. pressure without being blown out. 

A very good plug for high pressures is one which clamps around 
the outside of the hub, making tight by means of a rubber packing 
forced against the end of the hub. This testing plug is shown in 
Fig. B. 

The same plug may be applied to the spigot end of a pipe by 



THE WATER TEST 



169 



using a split collar against which the clamp may hold. In Fig. A 
the use of a double testing plug is shown. 

This is a valuable device for the connection shown, and for 
closing the main-trap outlet. 

In using this test, water should be filled into the system slowly, 
and as fast as defects appear they should be made tight before rais- 
ing the water higher. 

There are two reasons for this. A small leak at a high point 
may allow water to trickle down the pipe, and thus make it difficult 
to locate. If the system is quickly filled, a large quantity of water 
may escape from some large defect before it can be drawn off. 

It is sometimes necessary to test certain sections of the system 
as the work progresses. 

In making such tests there should be a column of water at least 
10 ft. in height above all parts of the work to be tested. 

Very high stacks should be tested in sections of not over 75 ft. 
in length, as the pressure of water when such a stack is tested entire 
is very great, and cannot be applied with safety. 

To find the pressure that is being exerted at any point on the 
plumbing system, multiply the vertical distance of this point from 
the top of the highest stack by .434, the pressure exerted by one 
foot of water. This will give the pressure in pounds per square 
inch. Thus, a point 50 ft. from the top will be under a pressure of 
50 X .434 = 21.7 lbs. per sq. in. 

The following table may be valuable in this connection : 



TABLE OF PRESSURES OF WATER 





Pressure 




Pressure 




Pressure 


Head per sq. in. 


Head 


per sq. in. 


Head 


per sq. in. 


I ft.. 


. .43 lbs. 


55 ft... 


23.82 lbs. 


1 10 ft. . . 


47.64 lbs 


5 " ■ 


. 2.16 " 


60 " . . . 


25-99 " 


115 "... 


49.81 '' 


10 " . 


• 4.33 " 


65 '' . . 


28.15 " 


120 " . . . 


51.98 " 


15 " ■ 


• 6.49 " 


70 " . . 


30.32 " 


125 " ... 


54.15 " 


20 " . 


. 8.66 " 


75 " • ■ 


32.48 " 


130 " . . . 


56.31 " 


25 " ■ 


.10.82 " 


80 " . . 


34.65 " 


135 " - - 


58.48 " 


30 ". 


.12.99 " 


85 " • ■ 


36.82 " 


140 " . . 


60.64 " 


35 ''• 


.15.16 " 


90 " . . 


38.98 " 


145 " • • 


62.81 " 


40". 


•17-32 " 


95 " • . 


.41.15 " 


150 " . . 


.64.97 " 


45 ". 


..19.49 " 


100 " . . 


.43.31 " 


155 " •■ 


.67.14 " 


50 ". 


.21.65 " 


105 " . . 


.45.48 " 


160 " . . 


.69.31 " 



lyo 



MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 





Pressure 




Pressure 




Head per sq. in 


Head 


per sq. in. 


Head 


165 ft. 


. 71.47 lbs. 240 ft. 


. . 103.96 lbs. 


330 ft... 


170 " . 


•• 73-64 ' 


245 " 


..106.13 " 


340 " . . . 


175 " • 


.. 75.80 ' 


250 " 


..108.29 " 


350 " . . . 


180 " . 


•• 77-97 ' 


255 " 


..110.46 " 


360 " ... 


185 " . 


. . 80.14 * 


260 " 


...112.62 " 


370 " . . . 


190 " . 


. 82.30 ' 


265 " 


..114.79 " 


380 " . . . 


195 " • 


■ 84.47 ' 


270 " 


..116.96 " 


390 " . . . 


200 " . 


. 86.63 ' 


' 275 " 


..119.12 " 


400 " . . . 


205 " . 


. 88.80 ' 


280 " 


..121.29 " 


500 " . . . 


210 " . 


. 90.96 ' 


285 " 


..123.45 " 


600 " . . . 


215 " . 


• 93-14 ' 


' 290 " 


..125.62 " 


700 " . . . 


220 " . 


• 95-30 ' 


295 " . 


..127.78 " 


800 " ... 


225 " . 


• 97-49 ' 


300 " . 


..129.95 " 


900 " . . . 


230 " . 


. 99.63 ' 


310 " . 


..134.28 " 


1000 " . . . 


235 " • 


.101.79 ' 


320 " . 


..138.62 " 





Pressure 

per sq 

. 142.95 
. 147.28 
.151.61 

•155-94 
. 160.27 

. 164.61 

. 168.94 

.173.27 

.216.58 

.259.90 

.303.22 

•346.54 
. 389.86 

•433-I8 



lbs. 



THE AIR TEST 

When the air test is applied to the roughing, air should be 
forced into the system through a force pump, until a pressure of 10 
lbs. is reached, 10 lbs. representing 20 in. of mercury. The air test 
is not so convenient and satisfactory to the plumber as the water 
test, for the location of a small leakage of air is not so easily found 
as a small leakage of water. Generally, in the case of a small air 
leak, the plumber goes over the pipe with a lather of soap applied 
with a brush. The escaping air will form a bubble, thus showing the 
location of a defect. 

However, the air test subjects all parts of the system to the 
same uniform pressure, while the pressure in the water test varies 
from zero pressure at the top to a pressure at the bottom depending 
upon the height of the stack. In applying the air test, all openings 
are closed. Through any convenient plug, a gas pipe is connected, 
to which a mercury gauge is attached, and hose connection made 
to the force pump. The air pumped into the system exerts a pres- 
sure on the mercury, forcing it upward in the tube about two inches 
for each pound of air pressure. 



THE PEPPERMINT TEST 171 

THE SMOKE TEST 

In applying the smoke test, a machine" designed for the purpose 
of producing a heavy volume of black smoke is used. Various mate- 
rials are used in this machine, for producing the smoke, among them 
being oily cotton waste, tarred paper, and oakum which has been 
soaked in petroleum. Waste is the best material, as it gives off a 
dense smoke and is not so inflammable as most other materials. In 
Fig. C, Plate 25, is shown the manner in which the smoke test is 
applied. Generally the hose connection from the smoke machine is 
run through a lead cap which is closed up with putty. The smoke- 
test plug shown in Fig. B is also used, the smoke passing through 
the plug. 

After the whole system is filled with smoke, an air pressure 
equal to a one-inch water column is applied. Defects are shown by 
puffs of smoke escaping through them. 

The smoke test appears to be displacing the peppermint test, 
and for work in general, it appears to be the more reliable of the two. 



THE PEPPERMINT TEST 

If the final test is to be made with peppermint, a mixture of 
2 ounces of oil of peppermint to a gallon of hot water is the require- 
ment for an ordinary house. 

On large work, 2 ounces of peppermint should be used for each 
stack up to five stories and basement in height, and for each addi- 
tional five stories, or fractional part of that number, an additional 
ounce per stack. The peppermint should be poured into the roof 
opening and the opening sealed. The person who has handled the 
peppermint should not enter the building until the test has been com- 
pleted, as the odor which he carries will spread about the house. 

Peppermint has a very penetrating odor, and its fumes quickly 
reach every part of the system, and by their escape bring attention 
to defects. A great point against ' the use of peppermint is that 
through a large defect the peppermint will pour in sufficient quantity 
to quickly fill the house with the odor, making it difficult to locate 
other leaks. Under certain conditions, however, the peppermint test 
seems to be the more reliable. 



172 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

For instance, on old work, much of the soil piping is often buried 
underground. In the event of defects underground, the peppermint 
fumes will often penetrate through into the cellar, whereas smoke 
would not. 

At the present time there are comparatively few towns of size, 
or cities, which do not demand the testing and inspection of the 
plumbing system, and, without doubt, no other factor has resulted 
in an equal amount of good in the attainment of sanitary work. 

Such provision makes it far more difficult for work to be con- 
structed of inferior material and with wrong connections, as between 
the testing and inspection of the system many of these features are 
discovered. 

It is almost an impossibility to provide country plumbing con- 
struction with the advantages of the inspection and test. 

The result of inability under the circumstances, to provide such 
regulation, results in the construction of a considerable amount of 
poor and unsanitary work in the country. 

This condition has been much improved in recent years, how- 
ever, chiefly through the demands of owners for tests to be made in 
the presence of architect and owner, and through the efifort of many 
architects to demand these things in their specifications. 



Plate XXVI 

CONTINUOUS VENTING 



<=^ 






P/a/-e 26, 



n 



J2^aJ2^ 7^2^/^ 




(27^^ o LZ5?^ _^o o^ 



1- 






ICsi 



7?§ a 2 2^^ 



J7^C222S 

'-Ve2^f 



r^9' 






K=^ 




K 




i7§ c/ijz 





\ 



^ 



T" 



ly- 









f/p. C. 



« 



CONTINUOUS VENTING 

As previously stated, it is necessary to provide a system of vents 
to supply air to the fixture traps, in order that they may not suffer 
from the siphonage of their seals. 

The one great objection to the system of trap venting as it now 
stands, is the fact that a vast majority of vents are found to be almost, 
if not completely closed, at the end of a few years of service. This 
result comes about chiefly owing to the location of the opening of 
the trap vent into the trap. Of necessity the vent of most traps, as 
ordinarily installed, must be taken off at such a point that this open- 
ing readily closes up with grease, lint, etc. If the stoppage came on 
the waste it would quickly become apparent, but a stoppage of the 
vent cannot become known usually, for the fixture may be used as 
readily as if the vent were free, and in many cases the trap may lose 
its seal owing to the stoppage of the vent, and the fixture still be 
used, the actual conditions remaining unknown to the inmates. 

In the use of the half-S trap, however, the vent may often be 
taken off the horizontal arm of the trap at such a distance from the 
trap itself that much less difficulty is experienced from stoppages of 
its vent opening. 

The S-trap or other trap in which the outlet pipe is carried 
horizontally from the trap, or nearly so, may be used in continuous 
vent work, but traps of the style of full S or ^-S traps cannot be 
used, the reason for which will soon appear. 

Plate 26 shows three illustrations of work in which the con- 
tinuous vent principle is applied. Many attempts have been made 
to provide special forms of traps whose vent openings would not 
close up, and mechanical devices have been used for the same pur- 
pose, but without satisfactory results. The continuous vent, how- 
ever, without resort to special contrivances or devices, vents the trap 
perfectly, and in such a way that there is little, and in fact no dan- 
ger of the vent-opening closing up. 

The three fixtures in Fig. C are provided with continuous vents, 
the half S-trap being used on each. It consists merely in connecting 
the outlet of the trap into a waste fitting so located that a vent may 

175 



176 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

be taken off the top of the same fitting. It will be readily seen that 
the possibility of the stoppage of the openings of these vent pipes is 
very small in comparison with work of ordinary character, in which 
the vent is connected to the trap. Wrought iron is generally used 
for the waste and vent on work that is concealed, while brass is much 
used on exposed work. Figs. A and B show the same work installed 
with cast-iron pipe. The objection to the use of cast-iron pipe on 
this work is that it is not made smaller than of 2-in. diameter. The 
fittings being so large is another reason for not using it so exten- 
sively as wrought iron. 

In all continuous vent work the vent is a continuation of the 
waste line. 

As will be seen in connection with several later plates, the con- 
tinuous vent finds excellent application to groups and lines of fixtures 
on large work, such as lines of urinals or lavatories in public toilet 
rooms. The fact that the vent opening is in no danger of stoppage 
is sufficient to recommend the continuous vent to universal use, even 
if no other advantages were to be gained. An additional advantage 
of importance, gained by the continuous vent, is a decreased rate of 
evaporation of the trap seal. This result is to be expected, owing to 
the distance of the vent connection fi:om the seal of the trap. 

Fig. B shows the continuous vent applied to two lavatories, back 
to back, on opposite sides of the same partition. For fixtures thus 
relatively located, the continuous vent is of very great value not only 
because of the advantages that are gained as named above, but also 
for the reason that a saving in cost of construction is effected by its 
use. As far as the waste and vent for the two fixtures are concerned, 
no more labor or stock is used than in constructing the waste and 
vent for one alone. 

It may not be clear to the reader that traps with other than a 
horizontal outlet cannot be used on continuous vent work. 

As already stated elsewhere, in order to prevent the siphon from 
operating, air must be brought into it at or near its crown. If air 
is brought into the long outlet arm of the siphon, it will not break 
its action. In the same way, a vent taken off the outlet at some dis- 
tance down from the crown of the ^-S sink trap, shown in Plate 9, 
will not accomplish results. In order, then, that air may be admitted 
on the same level as the trap seal and at a distance from it, a trap of 
the general design of the half-S trap must be used. 



Plate XXVII 

CONTINUOUS VENTING FOR TWO-FLOOR 

WORK 







J2S0223 J^ 2^0223 



CONTINUOUS VENTING FOR TWO-FLOOR WORK 

The continuous venting of fixture traps is sometimes known as 
" venting in the rough," the origin of the phrase being easily under- 
stood after referring to Plate 27, the connections for which are 
almost wholly made when the roughing is installed. In many towns 
and cities double apartment houses, with two fiats on each side, are 
very common, and in buildings of this kind the continuous-vent prin- 
ciple may be applied to very great advantage, after the manner 
shown in Plate 27. 

This same style of work may be used in many other buildings 
where the plumbing fixtures are on two floors, and assembled in a 
manner similar to the assembling of the fixtures in Plate 27. So 
long as the stack serves fixtures on two floors only, it does not mat- 
ter whether the two floors are consecutive, or whether one or more 
floors intervene between the two on which the fixtures are located. 

In double apartment houses the rooms are generally so planned, 
and the plumbing fixtures so located, that the stacks may be carried 
up in the wall which divides the two sides of the building. When 
so arranged, only half the number of vertical stacks is needed that 
would otherwise be necessary. 

Thus, one stack may serve all four kitchen sinks in the four- 
flat apartment building, the four fixtures being backed up to each 
other in pairs, on opposite sides of the division wall or partition, 
under which conditions the system shown in Plate 27 may easily be 
applied. 

The main waste and vent stacks are run in the usual manner, 
the two being connected above the highest fixture, and below the 
lowest waste entrance. A novel departure is made in connecting 
the traps of the two fixtures on the upper floor. Instead of connect- 
ing them into the waste stack in the ordinary manner, they are con- 
nected into the line that would ordinarily be the main vent stack. 

As the upper-floor fixtures are not connected into the waste 
stack, the line of pipe above the waste fitting of the lower floor is a 
vent, and into this vent line the vent line from the other two fix- 
tures connects. 

179 



i8o MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

In this style of work, neither vertical stack is entirely a waste 
stack, or entirely a vent stack. While altogether unlike the regular 
two-floor work, this style of work is perfectly legitimate. 

It can be applied only to two floors, for the third-floor fixtures 
would have to waste into one or the other of the two vertical stacks, 
and that stack could no longer be used as a vent line. 

A comparison of this plate with Plate 28 will show that this 
statement must be true, and it will also show that the use of the 
connections such as Plate 27 shows, calls for much less outlay in 
stock and labor per fixture than does the ordinary method of con- 
tinuous venting. 

As compared with crown venting, the work of Plate 27 calls 
for far less labor and considerably less stock. 

If crown venting were employed, the main vent line would have 
to be run and connected with the waste stack above and below, 
as shown. 

A fitting on the main vent line would be required at each floor, 
while the waste fittings would remain the same. 

Separate vents would have to be run from the crown of each 
trap, necessitating, in the case of lead work, a wiped joint on the 
trap and another at the vent fitting. This comparison will show that 
the labor involved in the continuous venting of two-floor work of the 
style shown in Plate 27 is very much less than on the same system 
installed according to the ordinary methods of crown venting. 

While in general it would seem that continuous venting can be 
done with less labor, it cannot so often be done with less stock, but 
its advantages are so great that it would appear that in the higher 
grade of construction, at least, it would soon come into general use. 
At the present time its use is demanded by some few city ordinances, 
and recommended by others. 

There is this to be said concerning its adoption: the continuous 
vent cannot always be applied, and in some cases it could not be 
applied without considerable additional cost. 

Owing to these conditions it would seem unwise to attempt to 
demand its use without regard to circumstances surrounding the 
fixture, but at the same time, much good work would be provided 
for in the future, and a long step taken in advance, if plumbing 
ordinances would call for the use of continuous venting wherever 
practicable. 



Plate XXVIII 



CONTINUOUS VENTING FOR TWO LINES 
OF FIXTURES ON THREE OR MORE 
FLOORS— PRACTICAL REQUIRE- 
MENTS OF VENTING 



for 77^0 L./nzs 0/ r/xf'urzs 
OA7 Thrzz <=>/^ M^m f/^Q/^s 






^d. <27J'oo_2^ 










CONTINUOUS VENTING FOR TWO LINES OF FIX- 
TURES ON THREE OR MORE FLOORS 

On the preceding plate the continuous vent is shown in a spe- 
cial application to two-floor work for four-flat apartment building-s. 
In Plate 28 the continuous vent is shown as applied to double lines 
of fixtures on three or more floors. Such double lines of fixtures 
are often to be found in double apartment buildings. 

In the larger cities such buildings are often many stories in 
height, and in the towns and smaller cities double apartment build- 
ings of three and four stories are very common. 

In office buildings, also, fixtures are often so located that two 
of them on the same floor, and on opposite sides of a wall or parti- 
tion, waste into the same stack. The work shown in Plate 28 applies 
to many cases of similar nature. The waste from each of the two 
adjacent fixtures is carried into the same waste fitting, from the 
bottom of which a mutual waste is run to the waste stack, and from 
the top a mutual vent to the vent stack. 

In addition to gaining for each fixture the advantages derived 
from continuous venting, the work may often, and in fact usually, 
be done with less labor and material than if installed with the cus- 
tomary crown venting. While the matter of saving in the cost of 
construction might be questionable in the case of a single line of fix- 
tures, the addition of a second line of fixtures requires no additional 
material or labor, with the exception of the furnishing of the traps 
and connecting them to the waste fittings. 

The system shown is an excellent one, and without doubt will 
gradually come into general use, a result much to be desired. The 
entire system shown is of cast iron, but it may be said that for the 
main vent, and especially for the fixture wastes and vents, wrought 
iron is more generally used. In the case of the mutual fixture wastes 
and vents, wrought iron will effect a saving in expense, as sizes 
smaller than 2 in. may often be used, and cast-iron pipe is not made 

in sizes smaller than 2 in. 

183 



i84 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 



PRACTICAL REQUIREMENTS OF VENTING 

The fixture vent should pitch upward from the trap at all 
points in order that condensation may drain into the trap, and it 
should be connected into the main vent line at a point higher than 
its fixture, so that, in the event of stoppage of the trap or waste, the 
fixture waste may not pass off through the vent. 

To provide against the latter evil, it is good practice in the case 
of a group of fixtures whose vents connect into a main branch vent, 
to run this branch so that its lowest vent fitting shall be at least two 
or three inches above the top of the highest fixture of the group. 

Formerly much vent work of lead was used, but the best prac- 
tice to-day calls for the use of galvanized iron or brass on all branch, 
main branch, and individual fixture vents of 2 in. or less in size. 
The use of lead for vent work is fast becoming limited to use in 
connection with lead traps, short connections being made into the 
wrought- iron or brass pipe. 

Main branch vents should be increased one size in diameter 
after passing 30 ft. 

When a fixture is located 8 ft. or more from the main vent, its 
trap vent should either be carried independently through the roof, or 
enter the main vent stack above all fixtures. 

Thus, in the case of the lavatory of Fig. C, Plate 20, if its dis- 
tance is 8 ft. or more from the stack, its vent should be run as above ; 
if its distance is 6 ft. or more, lead should not be used on its waste. 
Under such conditions the use of the continuous vent for the fixture, 
as shown, is excellent practice. 

Under Plate 13, it was shown that the main vent line might 
either run independently through the roof or reenter the soil or waste 
vent above the highest fixture. In many of the large cities this 
demand is qualified by requiring the running of a main vent sepa- 
rately through the roof, whenever such vent serves fixtures on more 
than six floors or extends more than 80 ft. above the grade line. 

Whenever main vent lines are reentered into soil or waste vents, 
no fixture should be located on any floor above such reentrance, and 
be connected to the soil, waste, vent, or back-vent pipes from fix- 
tures on floors below. 



Plate XXIX 

CONTINUOUS VENTING OF WATER CLOS 
ETS— CIRCUIT VENTS— LOOP VENTS 



C<=>nf'inu^u3 Vznhing 



R/ohz, 29. 




<«^ 



r ' ' i 



n 



Carried <^J8z*'=>uq25 ig'<^o/' 

^ w w 




J7§ 02 25 2sr2T5 e ^ <^^2l 





J7^oJ2Q Jhij^e. p/" y<z2^/ \ — / 



CONTINUOUS VENTING OF WATER CLOSETS- 
CIRCUIT VENTS— LOOP VENTS 

In the system of plumbing shown on Plate 29, the venting of 
the several lines of water closets is accomplished by extending the 
horizontal soil line beyond the last fixture, and connecting this exten- 
sion into a main vertical line of vent at a point higher than the top 
of the fixtures. 

The main vent stack may be at either end of the line of fixtures, 
but when placed at the end opposite the soil stack the connection of 
the horizontal lines into the vent stack is usually much shorter and 
more direct, and installed with the use of less pipe. When placed 
at the same end as the soil line, the running back to this point of a 
long line of large-sized pipe would often be a difficult or impossible 
matter. 

This form of venting is not strictly on the continuous-vent prin- 
ciple as shown in the three preceding plates, but being along some- 
what the same general lines is often alluded to as continuous venting. 

This method is also known as circuit venting. 

The system of circuit vents, as prescribed by certain plumbing 
ordinances, consists in the extension of the horizontal branch soil or 
waste lines and the connection of these extensions into a main ver- 
tical vent stack, the entire system including both main soil or waste 
stack, main vent stack, and branch soil or waste lines, providing for 
each line of fixtures a complete air circulation through the branch 
which serves them. 

The advantages derived from this system, as applied to water- 
closet lines, may also be obtained for other fixtures. 

Fixtures of other character, such as the lavatory located on the 

second floor in Plate 29, are vented as shown in the case of this 

lavatory. The use of the circuit-vent system is of special value 

when applied to lines of water closets, such as are very common in 

public toilet rooms, for the reason that the free circulation of air 

through the horizontal lines does away with the necessity of venting 

the individual fixtures in the ordinary manner, that is, from the lead 

bend. A water closet, however, connected to a horizontal soil line 

187 



i88 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

served by a circuit vent, and located 5 ft. or more from that line, 
should be vented in the usual manner. 

It will thus be seen that the continuous venting of lines of water 
closets by means of circuit vents, provides ample protection to the 
fixtures against siphonage, and effects a great saving in avoiding 
the outlay incident to installing a separate vent for each water closet. 

The common method of venting lines of water closets is shown 
in Fig. D, Plate 40. Any branch line of soil or waste pipe serving 
a line of two or more fixtures may be provided with a circuit vent 
to the advantage of the system. 

When the horizontal soil branch is of not more than 20 ft. in 
length, measuring from the main soil stack, and the line is not entered 
by more than four water closets, the vent extension may be reduced to 
3 in. from the end of the branch into the main vent stack. When a 
larger number than four water closets enter the horizontal soil branch, 
the vent extension should not be reduced in diameter, but should con- 
tinue of the same size as the soil branch, into the main vent stack. 

While not allowable to use quarter-bends on any part of the 
drainage system, they may be used on circuit vents, as shown in 
Plate 29. While much used on this work, a better form of practice 
is seen in the use of a T-Y or Y and eighth-bend, in place of the 
quarter-bend, thus allowing the use of an end cleanout, by means of 
which the entire horizontal branch could be controlled in the event 
of stoppage. 

In addition to the circuit vent, there is also what is known as 
the loop vent. The loop vent is a modified form of the circuit vent, 
used when a line or group of fixtures on a single floor is to be circuit- 
vented, and there are no fixtures on the floors above. 

In this case the soil or waste branch is extended beyond the 
line of fixtures, and run up as in the case of the circuit vent, and 
then looped over the line of fixtures into the soil or waste vent of 
the stack into which the branch soil or waste pipe connects. 

The loop vent may be used for a single line of fixtures, on a 
floor above which are other fixtures emptying into the same soil or 
waste stack, by connecting the loop into the main vent stack above 
the highest fixture of the group. 

The loop vent for a 4-in. soil branch may be 3 in. in diameter. 

For 5 and 6-in. soil branches, the loop vent should be 5 in. in 
diameter, and for larger sizes 6 in. 



Plate XXX 

PLUMBING FOR COTTAGE HOUSE 
GENERAL REMARKS 



Rlumbing f^r 



R/a/-e30. 




^" 




2" '^ jmojTZ Vez^f^ 



■-n---n 








4r" IT^oiiz 



0>'T7^rx^?;\7;t?Tr77xr7A X/Vr >• S' i, — \» ■■\\ — v^^/il., V'>.<^y,^^ ^Av^^ \i-'- 



m 




PLUMBING FOR COTTAGE HOUSE— GENERAL 

REMARKS 

The only difference between the plumbing system of a small 
dwelling, such as the cottage house, and the larger systems to be 
found in large residences, etc., is that it is of a less complicated 
nature, the rooms being so laid out and the pipes so located that the 
plumbing of the house is much more centralized than is possible in 
larger work. It is quite customary in the construction of the cot- 
tage house to so arrange the piping that one stack will be able to 
serve all the fixtures in the house. For dwellings of any descrip- 
tion, this stack must not be less than 4 in. in diameter, for it is to 
receive the discharge from the water closet, for which nothing less 
than 4-in. pipe should ever be provided, and as the water closet is 
to be vented usually, a 2-in. main vent is required. 

In the case of two stacks of different size, it is better practice 
to have the larger one at the house end of the house drain, rather 
than to reduce after passing the larger stack to the size of the 
smaller stack. 

Thus, in Plate 30, if the house drain were continued to receive 
a 2-in. stack, and reduced after passing the 4-in. stack, the circula- 
tion of air through the system would not be so good as it would be 
with the 4-in. stack at the end of the line. It is always good policy 
to centralize the plumbing as far as possible, as any legitimate 
expedient, looking to the simplification of a system that has now 
become somewhat complicated, is to be welcomed. It will mean less 
piping, and therefore less opportunity for defects, stoppages, etc. 

The sizes of pipes given in Plate 30 are those which are com- 
monly used, and to which no exception may be taken, unless with 
the sink and laundry tub, whose waste, according to the requirements 
of some ordinances, should be one size larger in diameter, which 
seems to be a wise requirement. 

On the plumbing systems of cottages, residences, etc., lead work 

seems to continue in use to a larger extent than on the work being 

installed in larger buildings. It must be stated in this connection, 

that the use of lead is still followed to a large extent in certain sec- 

191 



192 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

tions of the country, the superseding of it by iron and brass being 
particularly noticeable in the large cities. 

For waste pipes the following table of weights may be safely 
followed : 

Diameter of Lead Pipe Weight per Foot 

I in 2 lbs. 

114 " ^y2 '' 

iK'' 33^ " 

2 " 4 '' 

4 " 6 " 

The amount of pressure on street mains must determine the 
weights of lead pipe proper for supplies, but for ordinary pressures 
the following table is safe to follow: 

Diameter of Lead Pipe Weight per Foot 

y^ in I ^ lbs. 

k " ..2 



^ " 23^ " 

^ " 3 " 



Va 3 

I " 4 



Sheet lead should never be less than 4 lbs., and 6 lbs. for roof 
flashings is preferable. The tendency to use light materials, owing 
to the keen competition of the present day, is very marked, and 
nowhere on the plumbing system more plainly to be seen than in the 
lead work. Lead bends and drum traps, for instance, are often used 
which are so fragile that the workman must be careful that in his 
handling of them they are not crushed. This is true also of the pipe. 
The weights given above, however, if obtained, will ensure solid and 
secure work. 

The choice of material for water-supply pipes should always be 
made with due consideration to the chemical properties of the water 
supply. This is true also in the matter of range boilers. Some 
waters will quickly attack wrought-iron pipe and boilers, and make 
renewal necessary in comparatively few years. 

Lender such conditions, lead or brass supply pipes and copper 
range boilers should generally be used. 

On high-grade work, brass piping is now being extensively used, 
and for the best work all changes in direction are made by bending 
the pipe rather than by the use of elbows. 



Plate XXXI 



CONSTRUCTION OF CELLAR PIPING- 



THE HOUSE DRAIN, HOUSE SEWER, ETC. 



Qzllar R/ping 



P/af'<z 3L 



^\\\\\\\\\\^H^\\^\\\^^^ 






O 



^^^^^ 



I 




Cl^ojz^zzi 



I ^ 




'itii-cTteiz 



Joe Oder 



Mliidd. Mraija 






|i73/o Cello z* Je>rc?228 




:=r.r=z-:-_-_^o 



4". 



}Vb/-er C2<=>^e/\ 

4" 



CeJIOJ-^ Jq>I^0223 








^ 




27^0228 Q7rOJc> 

Cleo2z<^u/^^:^ 



1 

i 

i 



C. I. ^2 



y^' 



4' 



<^enr(2i^ 



Q^re^Is JLi2y 
^^^ Iz32e.f 




3) 



THE HOUSE DRAIN, HOUSE SEWER, ETC. 

Plate 31 shows the general form of the drainage piping in 
the cellar or basement. Many of the features which appear have 
been taken up under preceding plates, such as main trap and fresh- 
air inlet, cellar and subsoil drainage, etc., and will not be again 
considered here. 

Before taking up the consideration of the above subject, it will 
be well to clearly define the terms house drain and house sewer, con- 
cerning which there is often some confusion. 

The house drain is that portion of the horizontal piping of the 
drainage system of any building into which all the soil and waste 
pipes, whether vertical or horizontal, but inside the building, ulti- 
mately discharge. The house drain extends through the founda- 
tion wall. 

The house sewer is a continuation of the main drain, from the 
point where the latter ends, to its connection into the sewer or cesspool. 

The house drain and sewer, under any ordinary circumstances, 
should serve but the one building, it being entirely wrong to connect 
the sewage from any building into the house drain or house sewer 
of another building. The drainage system of each building should 
be entirely distinct and separate from all other buildings. 

It sometimes occurs in the large cities, where buildings of mam- 
moth proportions are erected, that in order to properly care for the 
vast amount of sewage collected over large areas and from many 
floors, it is necessary to make use of two house drains and sewers 
for different sections of the building, in which case the two systems 
are entirely separate. More than twb house drains and sewers are 
rarely required. The running of the house drain, whether overhead 
or underground, is determined largely by the prevailing usages of 
different towns and cities. For instance, the prevailing construction 
of some cities is flat houses, in which all plumbing fixtures will be 
found on the several floors, and none in the basement or cellar, under 
which conditions the house drain may be run overhead. 

On the other hand, the prevailing dwelling houses of another 
city may have two or three single flats, the laundry tubs for the 

195 



196 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

several flats being placed in the cellar, which necessitates running 
the house drain underground. The house drain should be of extra- 
heavy iron pipe, and should be carried to a point lo ft. from the 
inner face of the cellar wall. This means that two full lengths of 
soil pipe are to be used in running from the foundation wall to the 
house sewer. 

The reason for this requirement is the danger of broken earthen- 
ware pipe and fittings and cement joints, close to the foundation wall, 
with the consequent danger of the leeching of escaping sewage 
through the foundation walls into the cellar. When laid under- 
ground, nothing but extra-heavy tarred cast-iron pipe should be 
used, whether it be the house drain or branches from it. This is 
required for the reason that uncoated cast-iron pipe is in time de- 
stroyed by galvanic action when laid underground, and wrought iron 
and steel pipe suffers in the same way, but to a far greater extent. 
On no account should earthenware pipe enter the cellar. The best 
method of making the connection at the main trap is shown in Fig. A, 
Plate 25, as the use of an end cleanout is thus allowed, which will 
control the straight line out into the house sewer in the event of 
stoppage. If the house drain through the foundation wall cannot 
be laid low enough for the main trap to discharge into the Y from 
above, the Y may be used lying on its side. 

All entrances into the house drain, or into any horizontal soil 
or waste branch, should be made through Y-branches or Y-branches 
and bends. 

Into the house drain all floor drains, cellar drains, etc., should 
be connected. 

In the case of rain leaders, they should be connected into the 
house drain when brought inside the basement or cellar, but may also 

be run outside the foundation walls and entered into the house sewer. 

» 

If, however, there is a separate public system for surface sewage, 
clear waste, such as coming from floor and yard drains, rain leaders, 
subsoil drainage, etc., should be connected into the house drain of the 
surface sewage system. 

The matter of the use of the main trap is generally determined 
by plumbing ordinance. The practice is varied, some cities demand- 
ing its use, others prohibiting it, and still others making its use 
optional. When the main trap is used, however, all connections into 
the main drain should be made on the house side of the trap. 



THE HOUSE DRAIN, ETC. 197 

The objection to the use of a main trap, due to the forcing of 
its seal, has caused a trial of two main traps on the house drain. 
The use of two traps, however, has not been taken up to any extent. 

Whenever two traps have been used, the fresh-air inlet has been 
taken off on the house side of the trap farthest from the sewer, and 
in order that there shall be no air lock between the two traps, a vent 
was taken off a fitting placed between the two traps. The idea of 
this arrangement was that, in case back pressure from the sewer 
was sufficient to force the seal of the first trap, the seal of the second 
trap could never be forced because of the vent between the two traps, 
and in this way sewer gas would be prevented from entering the 
house-drainage S3^stem. An objection advanced against the use of 
a single main trap is that it impedes the free outflow of sewage and 
is subject to stoppage. 

The use of two traps would certainly increase these troubles, 
and their use would seem to be inadvisable. As already stated, sim- 
plicity rather than complexity is to be desired in all parts of the 
plumbing system, and especially at such a point as the main trap, 
where serious trouble affects the entire system. 

As stated above, the house sewer begins at the point where the 
house drain ends, which is generally 10 ft. from the inside face of 
the foundation wall, although some plumbing ordinances make this 
distance only 5 ft. In general, the house sewer is constructed of 
vitrified earthen pipe, and should be one size larger than the house 
drain. If the house drain is 4 in. in diameter, the house sewer 
should be 5 in. 

All pipe that is buried deep underground, and therefore not 
easily accessible, should be of larger size than for the same line when 
running above ground, whether the pipe be used for drainage or 
supply purposes. When the house sewer is laid in made ground, or 
in ground that has been filled in, or is in danger of destruction from 
roots of trees or from the action of frost, earthenware pipe should 
never be used. Under these conditions nothing but extra-heavy 
tarred cast-iron pipe should be used, laid with caulked lead joints, but 
not with cement joints. When the house sewer must of necessity 
run close to any cistern, or any source of water supply, it should be 
constructed of cast-iron pipe. 

Joints on the earthen pipe of house sewers should be given as 
careful attention as joints on any other part of the plumbing system, 



198 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

although this work is often constructed in a most careless manner. 
Portland cement of the best quality should be used, three parts of 
clean sand to one part of Portland cement. 

The opening between the spigot and the hub should be entirely 
filled with cement, and whatever cement has squeezed out into the 
interior of the pipe should be cleaned off and removed before the 
next length or fitting is laid. A lath is convenient for cutting ofif 
the superfluous cement. A stronger and better joint may be made by 
caulking a ring of oakum into the hub before the cement is put in. 

The spigot end should be inserted into the hub so that the 
thickness of the cement will be uniform around the circumference. 
Depressions should be cut into the bottom of the trench for the hubs 
to set into, thus allowing the pipe to rest firmly on its entire length 
rather than on the hubs only. The bottom of the trench should have 
a uniform grade of not less than 2 ft. in 100 ft., and more where 
possible, and in long lines of trench work it becomes almost neces- 
sary to have the grade laid out by an engineer in order that the work 
may be done properly. This is especially true when the total pitch 
for the entire length is barely sufficient, and must be distributed 
evenly. 

Before trenches are filled in, the earth around pipes should be 
thoroughly rammed, and no pipe, whether water or drainage, should 
be covered until inspected by the proper official. Changes in direc- 
tion of the house sewer, entrances into it of rain leaders, etc., should 
be done under the same general rules regulating like work in con- 
nection with the house drain. 

When rain leaders connect into the house drain or house sewer, 
it should be seen to that these two lines are of sufficient size to handle 
the large volume of rain water entering them during severe storms. 
The amount of water which a line of pipe can safely be depended 
upon to carry depends largely on the grade at which the pipe is laid. 

The connection of the house sewer into the street sewer should 
be made as shown in Plate 31, that is, by the use of a Y-branch on 
the main sewer and a bend on the house sewer. 

This is more satisfactory than entering a tee, just as it is on 
the house-drainage system. When the street sewer and house sewer 
are of such levels that a proper grade can be secured, the house sewer 
should enter the main street sewer above the center of the arch of 
the latter. 



Plate XXXII 

PLUMBING FOR RESIDENCES— USE OF 
SPECIAL FITTINGS— BRASS PIPING 



r-., ... r P/Of-(Z 3Z, 

R/umbing r<=>/^ ^ 

Res/cfznc<z - Usz ^f M 
A^ >Spzc/a/ r//-/-/ngs ^ ^^ 



Jhova-Z-cry 



Mo-f2?i ^<=°i^ 




PLUMBING FOR RESIDENCES— USE OF SPECIAL 
FITTINGS— BRASS PIPING 

The plumbing for a residence, shown in Plate 32, shows the 
use of various special waste and vent fittings, which are now coming 
into use extensively on the best class of work. A special advantage 
gained in their use is that fixture traps may be easily provided with 
a continuous vent. In previous plates the running of continuous 
vents by the use of common fittings is to be seen. The use of spe- 
cial fittings often saves the making of one or more joints. In Plate 
32 all the fixtures are supplied with continuous vents with the excep- 
tion of the bath and lavatory in the bath room, and the refrigerator 
drip sink. It is very rare that a fixture is so located, however, that, 
by the use of some one of the numerous special fittings or common 
fittings, it cannot be vented on the continuous principle. It will be 
noted that sizes of all pipes are given. 

For the ordinary residence, double house, two- and three-flat 
houses, and much other work, a 4-in. house drain and main stack is 
large enough for the work required of them. It is poor policy in 
constructing the house drain or the house sewer, or any horizontal 
drainage pipe, to use a pipe of larger size than is necessary, for it 
is much better to have the sewage which is flowing through a hori- 
zontal line fill the pipe well up on its sides than to have the pipe so 
large that the sewage flows in a thin stream at the bottom of it. In 
the latter case, heavy sewage is more liable to lodge in the pipe, 
while the use of a smaller pipe would have resulted in sufficient 
scouring action to carry it along through the pipe. It will be noticed 
that in Plate 32 the laundry tubs are located in the cellar. This is 
a very common practice. A strong point against it, however, is that, 
but for placing this fixture in the cellar, the house drain might be 
run overhead and in sight, which is always preferable to burying it 
underground. 

On high-grade work, such as is to be found in residences, apart- 
ment buildings, etc., brass piping is now largely used for waste and 

vent work. 

201 



202 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

The proper weights of brass pipe are to be found in the follow- 



Nominal Diameter 

of Pipe Weight per Foot 

4 in 11,29 lbs. 

4/2 " 13.08 " 

5 " 15-37 " 

6 " 19.88 " 



ing table: 






WEIGHTS 


Nominal Diameter 
of Pipe 

i>4 in. . . . 

2 

2y2 '' 


Weight per Foot 

. . 2.84 lbs. 
.. 3.82 " 
. . 6.08 " 


3 " 


• • 7.92 " 


3/2 "... . 


• . 9-54 " 



Brass fittings used on drainage work should be cast, and of 
extra heavy weight, and of recessed pattern, similar to cast-iron 
recessed drainage fittings, as illustrated in Plate 44. 

With the various appliances now on the market, there is abso- 
lutely no excuse for using on brass and nickel pipes the tools designed 
for use on wrought-iron pipes. These appliances include brass pipe 
vises and wrenches of various makes, the use of which avoids all 
scratching of pipe and tubing, and the crushing of the latter result- 
ing from the use of common vises and pipe wrenches. 

Brass pipe work should always be put together with threaded 
connections of iron-pipe size, but never with slip joints and couplings. 

It often happens, both on supply and drainage work, that it is 
necessary or desirable to make a bend in the pipe rather than to use 
an elbow. The following is a practical method of performing this 
work, and the result, when the work is properly done, is a perfect 
bend. 

First fill the pipe to be bent with sand, and securely plug each 
end. Set the pipe on the work bench, with the point to be bent over- 
hanging. Place a plumber's furnace under the pipe, so that the flame 
heats the pipe at the bending point. To confine the heat, cover this 
part of the pipe with a piece of sheet iron, or a shovel, if more con- 
venient. See to it that the pipe does not become overheated. 

When it becomes sufficiently hot, the weight of the overhanging 
pipe will cause it to bend. With care and a little experience, sharp 
right-angle bends can be easily and neatly made in this manner. 

When heated, brass becomes very brittle, and it should not be 
removed, therefore, until somewhat cooled. 

If the overhanging end is too short to provide sufficient weight 
to cause the pipe to bend, a weight may be attached to the pipe. 



Plate XXXIII 

PLUMBING FOR TWO-FLAT HOUSE- 
RAINLEADERS— PLUMBING CONSTRUC- 
TION FOR TENEMENT HOUSES 



H/umb/ng r<=>r 
Tw<^ -r/af- H<=>usz -/7o /Tlo/n 



^n 



<£7'JsT''=>zz^^ ■^'^°/ 







2" 






(^JtqIz 



W 







4" 



^ 



a 2 23 Jhe (ydcT* 




-^" 




C 







PLUMBING FOR TWO-FLAT HOUSE 

The elevation of the plumbing for a two-flat house, with pipe 
sizes given, is shown on Plate 33. In general, the plumbing on build- 
ings of this class is confined to the kitchen sink, laundry tubs, and 
three bath-room fixtures. Although not shown in Plate 33, owing 
to lack of sufficient space, flat buildings of all classes should be pro- 
vided with refrigerator drainage. Usually in flat houses of two or 
three stories, a 4-in. bath-room stack and a 2-in. kitchen stack is 
required, although in some cases the 4-in. stack can be made to serve 
all the fixtures, obviating the use of a second stack. The use of two 
stacks is better, however, as separate entrance into the stacks can 
be gained for each fixture, which would be very difficult if the five 
fixtures entered one stack. In two- or three-flat houses the laundry 
tubs are sometimes located in the cellar, against which there is no 
special objection, if the cellar is well lighted and ventilated, except 
the matter of inconvenience to the tenants on the upper floors. In 
Plate 33 all fixtures have separate waste entrances, and it will be 
noted that the kitchen fixtures are served by the special method 
described and illustrated in Plate 2.J. 

It will be noted that the water closet on the upper floor is not 
vented. There is in reality no danger whatever of the siphonage of 
the water-closet trap when the fixture is located close to its stack, 
with no fixtures entering the stack on floors above, and therefore 
there is no necessity of venting it. Most plumbing ordinances ac- 
knowledge this fact by not demanding the venting of water closets 
thus located. 

In connection with this plate, the subject of rain leaders will be 
considered. 



RAIN LEADERS 

The size of rain leaders should never be less than 3 in., and 

as much larger as the roof area which is drained should require. 

Plumbing ordinances differ in trap requirements for rain leaders, 

205 



2o6 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

some requiring no leader trap when the main trap is used, others 
demanding leader traps even though the system is protected by the 
main trap. It goes without saying that each rain leader should be 
trapped on the system which has no main trap. It would appear 
wise to use the trap also on systems provided with main trap. There 
is no danger in this case of air lock from double trapping, for this 
trouble is obviated by the presence of the fresh-air inlet. The use of 
the trap prevents foul odors from the house drainage system, and pos- 
sible back pressure from the sewer, from finding their way through 
the rain leaders and conductor pipes and escaping through joints 
and defects in the latter into the rooms of the house through open 
windows. The usual method is to run the rain leader, of cast or 
wrought iron, from its connection with the house drain to a point 
outside the foundation wall, where the galvanized iron conductor 
enters it. The iron pipe connection should end not less than 5 ft. 
above the grade level. When run entirely inside the building, they 
must be of cast or wrought iron, and connected at the roof by means 
of lead or copper pipe wiped to a brass ferrule and caulked into the 
top of the leader, the opening being protected by a wire guard or 
basket. Whenever possible, it is better practice to connect two or 
more branch rain leaders into one main, and place a trap on this 
main, rather than to separately trap each leader. This method 
guards the piping better, for the reason that a trap thus located is 
more certain of maintaining its seal. In the same way, and for the 
same reason, the rain leader may be connected into a yard drain, the 
two lines being protected by one trap. 

Conductors run outside should be one size larger than required 
for a conductor draining the same area when run inside. 

When rain leaders pass through the foundation close to a drive- 
way, or where there is danger of being harmed by passing teams, 
they should be run up in recesses made in the walls, and should not 
pass through the side of the building at a point lower than 12 ft. 
above the grade. 

If there is no sewer in the street on which the building is located, 
its roof drainage should be conducted from the leaders into a pipe 
running below the sidewalk to the street gutter. 

If the street is provided with a public surface sewage system, 
the rain leaders should connect into the surface house drain, and not 
into the house drainage system. If desired, it is proper to carry the 



RAIN LEADERS 207 

rain leaders outside the house and enter them outside the main trap 
into the house sewer. When so run, they may be of either extra- 
heavy cast-iron or glazed-earthenware pipe, and should be provided 
with traps made accessible by being located in brick or stone wells 
or manholes. The chief danger that confronts the rain-leader trap 
is the loss of its seal during a long-continued drought. In traps 
having only a ^^-in. seal or thereabouts, it can be imagined that 
evaporation will not be long in causing its destruction. It would be 
a good idea to construct on all rain leaders, deep seal traps made of 
quarter-bends, in order that a sufficient depth may be obtained. 

The evils of evaporation thus far have been almost impossible 
to remedy, and -the only safe course is to take every possible precau- 
tion against it. There is one point that may be advanced in favor 
of connecting the rain leaders inside the cellar wall with the house 
drain, instead of running them outside the cellar wall and connecting 
them into the house sewer. When connected inside, the rain water 
during a storm enters the house drain in sufficient quantity to thor- 
oughly scour and cleanse the piping. 

REGULATION OF PLUMBING CONSTRUCTION IN 
TENEMENT HOUSES, LODGING HOUSES, ETC. 

Many of the larger cities have found that as the crowded condi- 
tions of the tenement-house districts increase, special provisions must 
be made to meet these conditions in such a manner that the sanitary 
standard of these dwelling places may be kept as high as possible. 
Other conditions besides that of being crowded, such as the unclean- 
liness and ignorance of many of the inmates of these districts, make 
special provisions a necessity. The following requirements with 
others of similar nature, are therefore now demanded by many of our 
large cities in their plumbing ordinances. 

In all such houses, and in factories and workshops as well, there 
should be installed at least one water closet, regardless of the small 
number of occupants, and there should be enough additional water 
closets to allow at least one such fixture for each 15 persons. 

In tenement and lodging houses there should be not less than one 
water closet on each floor, and whenever more than one family occu- 
pies a single floor, there should be at least one additional water closet 
for each two additional families. In such buildings whenever there 



2o8 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

are more than 15 persons living on the same floor, there should be 
an additional water closet installed on that floor for every 15 addi- 
tional persons, or fractional part of that number. The water-closet 
compartments of tenement and lodging houses, factories and work- 
shops should be made waterproof, with marble, slate, or tile. In 
tenement houses, when the water closet is used by a single family 
only, its base must be not less than 6 in. high, and in all other cases, 
where it is required, it should be as high as the seat. 

Water closet and urinal apartments of tenement and lodging 
houses should in all cases be provided with a window opening into 
the outer air, or into a ventilating shaft not less than 10 sq. ft. in 
area. The partitions separating the toilet from the rest of the floor 
space should either extend to the ceiling, or the apartment be sealed 
over. These partitions should be made air-tight, and the outside 
partition be made to include a window opening into the outer air, 
into a ventilating shaft or into such a lighted area as may be 
approved by the proper officials. The interior partitions of such 
toilet apartment should be dwarfed partitions. The general water- 
closet accommodations for a tenement or lodging house should not 
be allowed to be installed in any cellar, and all such fixtures should be 
open, and free from any inclosing woodwork. Sinks of these houses 
should also be entirely open, and supported on iron legs or brackets, 
without inclosing woodwork of any description. 

If the water pressure is not sufficient to fill the house tank of such 
buildings as tenement and lodging houses, factories and workshops, 
power pumps should be provided. Cesspools should never be per- 
mitted in the case of tenement and lodging houses, and the yards, 
areas, and courts of such buildings should be properly drained into 
the sewer. 



Plate XXXIV 



PLUMBING FOR APARTMENT BUILDING- 
SYSTEMS OF HOT-WATER SUPPLY- 
RANGE BOILERS, ETC. 



R/umb/ng f^r 

Apar^f-menh Bui/cf/ng 



icq 



^fl 



p=i 






1^ 







PLUMBING FOR APARTMENT BUILDING— SYSTEMS OF 
HOT-WATER SUPPLY— RANGE BOILERS, ETC. 

It is not the purpose of this work to take up the consideration 
of either hot- or cold-water supply in a comprehensive manner. There 
are certain things, however, which many of the readers of this book 
will desire to know, and some of these will be briefly given at this 
point. 

The range boiler, to be in keeping with the other plumbing 
fixtures of such work as shown in Plate 34, should be of copper. 
The galvanized boiler has a great advantage in first cost, but the 
copper boiler will generally outlast several of the galvanized. On 
contract work the 30-gallon boiler is much used, but 40 gallons is 
a better size for apartment buildings having individual range boilers. 

For residence work, boilers of larger capacity than 40 gallons 
are often required. For large apartment buildings, office buildings, 
etc., it is far more satisfactory and more economical to provide a 
large tank heated by a special heater. This practice does away with 
the use of a boiler for each apartment. 

A method often followed in the use of the large hot-water tank 
or boiler, is to provide it with steam coils connected to the heating 
system, by means of which it may be heated in the winter time, a 
small heater providing heat for it during the summer time. One of 
the annoyances in this work comes from carelessness or inattention 
to the heater on the part of the attendant. This may be avoided by 
the use of automatic tank regulators, of which there are several 
makes on the market. By means of such an appliance, the tempera- 
ture of the boiler heated either by steam coils or coal-burning heater, 
or by both, may be regulated to a certain temperature. 

The size of main necessary to supply the plumbing fixtures for 

a large apartment building, office building, or other similar building, 

is a problem that is often difficult to solve. The main and branches, 

if properly sized, will allow water to be drawn at any fixture or any 

reasonable number of fixtures,, without afifecting the free flow of water 

at other fixtures. When pipes of too small size are used, however, the 

211 



212 



MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 



use of water at a single fixture will result in a reduced flow at other 
fixtures. The following will be of service in estimating the necessary 
size of main to perform given amounts of work. In the first place, 
it must be remembered that all fixtures are not in use at any one 
time. The chances are that in an apartment such as shown in Plate 
34, not more than one fixture in the bath room will be used at any 
one time, or more than one fixture in the kitchen. Therefore, in the 
case of apartment buildings, the main will be ample in size if designed 
to supply two y2-in. fixture supplies per apartment. Thus, if there 
were 20 apartments, a main having a supplying capacity equal to 40 
}^-'m. pipes would be of sufficient size. The following table shows 
the approximate number of 5^ -in. pipes different larger sizes of pipes 
will supply: 



I in. i^ in. 


2 in. 


2^ in. 


3 in- 


4 in. 


Sin. 


6 in. 


5 1 16 


32 


50 


100 


200 


375 


600 



Referring to this table, it will be seen that a size between 2 in. 
and 25^ in. will be required to supply this system. The 2}^ in. would 
be the safer and better size, although 2 in. would no doubt do the 
work satisfactorily. In a great many systems this question could 
not be figured out in this way. For instance, in large toilet rooms 
of hotels, railroad stations, etc., the demand at times is large and at 
other times small. The main supply lines and branch mains under 
such conditions must be made to supply maximum requirements. 

In supplying hot and cold water to apartment buildings and other 
similar work, each group of fixtures should be supplied by a separate 
line. Thus, each kitchen should have its own supply, and each bath 
room also, each line having a shut-off. This avoids much annoy- 
ance, for if otherwise, the making of repairs in one flat might result 
in the shutting off of the supply in others. On a great deal of high- 
grade work, faucets for the various fixtures are specified to be of 
the Fuller pattern, and on public work often of some self-closing 
pattern. Both Fuller and self-closing work closes very quickly, and 
water, being almost incompressible, forms a very poor cushion to 
receive the shock. The common result in the use of these two styles 
of work is a snapping and jarring of the pipes whenever the faucets 
are closed. Air chambers properly placed will often entirely remedy 
this trouble. Compression faucets, however, are much slower in 



PLUMBING FOR APARTMENT BUILDING 



213 



closing, and from them none of the above annoyances is experienced. 
Compression work is not only better many times than Fuller and 
self-closing work, but it is less expensive. 

Two systems of supply are in general use: tank pressure and 
street pressure. In the use of range boilers on the direct or street- 
pressure system, supplies are taken directly to the boilers, while in 
the use of the tank system the supply for the boilers is taken direct 
to the tank and from that point delivered to the boilers below. The 
result of the tank method of supply is a uniform pressure, while 
the direct system gives a pressure which varies greatly according to 
the demands that are being made upon it. Boilers used on tank 
systems may usually be of lighter construction than tank boilers, 
although this is not true in the case of high buildings. The conditions 
in very high buildings are of a special nature, often requiring special 
apparatus. For instance, many office buildings, hotels, etc., in the 
large cities, are of such great height that the pressure on the street 
mains is not sufficient to force water to the upper floors. Under 
such circumstances, for those floors not reached by direct pressure, 
a house tank above all fixtures must be provided, into which water 
must be pumped. 

Large hot-water boilers are generally of the horizontal pattern, 
hung from the cellar timbers by heavy wrought-iron hangers. 

The following is a table of boilers of standard size and make, 
and their capacities: 



Si 


ze of Boiler 


Capacity 


5f 


t. X 12 in. 


30 gals. 


5 ' 


' X 13 '' 


35 " 


5 ' 


' X 14 '' 


40 " 


5 ' 


' X 16 " 


52 " 


5 ' 


' X 18 " 


66 " 


5 ' 


' X 20 " 


82 " 


5 ' 


' X22 " 


100 " 


5 ' 


' X 24 - 


120 " 


4 ' 


' X 30 " 


140 " 


6 ' 


' X 24 " 


144 " 


7 ' 


' X 24 '' 


168 " 



Size of Boiler 

5 ft. X 30 in. 
8 " X24 

9/2 " X 30 

6 " X 30 

4 " X 36 

5 " X 36 

s'A " X 36 

6 " X 36 

7 " X36 

8 " X 36 



Capacity 

185 gals. 

192 

203 

225 

212 

265 

290 

315 
360 

425 



For apartment buildings such as shown in Figs. 34 and 35, the 
construction of circulation work is of very great advantage, as it is 
in almost any system of plumbing. On ordinary work, the hot-water 
supply is run from the hot-water main, and ends at the fixture which 



214 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

it supplies. In circulation work, the supply is run from the main 
also, but it is returned by a circulating or return pipe, into the boiler. 
The result is that in the first case a long line of pipe filled with cold 
water must often have to be drawn off before the water will run hot, 
while in the use of the circulating pipe, the water will run hot almost 
at once. The latter naturally causes much less annoyance to the 
person desiring to draw hot water. The first cost of circulation work 
is greater than that of ordinary work, but if the water is metered 
and paid for by the cubic foot, it will be found that circulation work 
generally figures out a good investment. 

In installing hot- and cold-water supply systems for large build- 
ings, it is usual to supply headers which are connected with the boiler. 
Separate headers are used for the cold supply, hot supply and return. 
The street supply is connected with the cold-water header, and from 
it all cold-water supply lines are taken out. The flow pipe from the 
boiler is connected into the hot-water header, and from the header 
all hot-water supplies are taken off. All return or circulation pipes 
are connected to the return header, and the latter connected to the 
boiler return. Each line of pipe connecting with each header should 
be provided with a stop and waste cock close to the header, a small 
waste connection from each cock being connected into a main line 
of waste, which should empty into some convenient basement fixture. 
Such a waste should not be connected directly into the drainage 
system. Each line of hot- and cold-water supply, and each return 
pipe should be provided with a metal tag, showing what fixture, or 
group of fixtures, and what floor it serves. 

A keyboard, as the above arrangement is called, is a very con- 
venient thing, especially on large work, and is much used in nice 
residences, apartment buildings, office buildings, etc. 

In the event of bursts or other emergencies, the keyboard shows 
at once the valves that control the piping that is to be shut off, and 
often saves damage to the property that would result if the proper 
valve could not be found quickly. The use of the valve waste allows 
the contents of the pipe to drain off into the fixture without dis- 
charging onto the cellar bottom. 

The foregoing, as already stated, is not meant as comprehen- 
sive in any way, but is given simply in a suggestive manner, in 
connection with the general subject of drainage of different classes 
of buildings. 



Plate XXXV 

PLUMBING FOR DOUBLE APARTMENT 
BUILDINGS— FILTERED WATER SUPPLY 



H/umJb/ng r^r 
Double Aportmznh Building 








Mo /-la ^'=>^72z 



Q 




PLUMBING FOR DOUBLE APARTMENT BUILDINGS 

In Plate 35 are shown two stacks serving the fixtures of a double 
apartment building, one stack for the kitchen fixtures, the other for 
bath-room fixtures. 

The main lines of soil and waste pipes in buildings of this class 
may often be run in the mutual wall or partition which divides the 
building at the center. This method centralizes the plumbing, and 
allows the work to be installed at the lowest possible cost of labor 
and material. 

Lack of space prevents showmg in this system a line of refriger- 
ator waste, which should always be provided in buildings of this 
class. In the more pretentious apartment buildings a pantry sink is 
often provided for each aoartment and sometimes one or more bed- 
room lavatories. 

Connected with the general plumbing arrangements for apart- 
ment buildings, office buildings, etc., the matter of a filtered water 
supply is now demanding much attention, as also for residences, and 
a brief consideration of the subject will not be out of place at this 
point. 

FILTERED WATER SUPPLY 

There is a constantly growing demand for filtered water supplies 
for city buildings of nearly all classes, the demand increasing as the 
country grows in population, and as a consequence hitherto pure 
supplies of water become polluted. 

There are two forms of filtration, that which clears the water 
of all mechanical impurities, such as rust, sediment, etc., and that 
which not only clarifies the water, but frees it of all germ life and 
renders it free from the danger of producing such diseases as typhoid 
fever. For commercial purposes, for the bath room, etc., the first- 
named form of filtration is sufficient, but for drinking and culinary 
purposes, the latter form should be required. It is a mistaken idea 
that the ordinary filtration plant which filters the supply for an entire 

building in every case purifies the water of disease germ.s. The water 

217 



2i8 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

coming through such apparatus is certainly rendered purer as far as 
inorganic matter is concerned, but a filter working under pressure 
cannot deliver water so free from the more dreaded disease germs 
as the filter which operates by the gravity of the water passing 
through it. 

An ideal provision for the supply of filtered water would include 
the installation of a pressure filter on the main supply of the building, 
to clarify and purify the entire supply for the building outside of the 
supply for drinking purposes, and the installation of a gravity filter 
supplying a separate system of piping for drinking and culinary 
purposes. In place of the latter, a form of filter of excellent con- 
struction, described as follows, may be used. The common form of 
the filter referred to is made in different sizes for domestic use, filter- 
ing enough water during the twenty-four hours of the day to provide 
a liberal supply of drinking water. 

The apparatus is briefly as follows: Connection by means of 
block-tin pipe is made to the supply pipe, the water being conveyed 
to a sheet-metal tank hung on the wall, inside of which, and attached 
to a collecting device, are unglazed porcelain tubes filled with bone- 
black or animal charcoal. The water is admitted to the tank through 
a ball cock, which admits it only as fast as drawn. The water, by 
means of its own gravity only, filters through the tubes and their 
contents, and flows into the collector to which the tubes are connected 
by rubber connectors. From the collector the filtered water runs 
down into a glass globe attached to the bottom of the tank, from 
which the water may be drawn as required. 

In most of the large cities will be found companies operating 
this and other domestic filters, who inspect, clean, and sterilize the 
apparatus each month. Upon the periodical attention given to filters 
depends their satisfactory operation. If no attention is given them, 
after a time the tubes clog up and refuse to filter, or if filtration 
continues it is under very unsafe conditions, as all water passing 
through must come in contact with the thick covering of sediment 
and impurities collected on the outside of the tubes. This same style 
of filter in a modified form, can .be made to produce any amount of 
pure water desired per day, and is made use of extensively for pro- 
viding the drinking supply of hotels, restaurants, hospitals, and other 
institutions which desire nothing but a pure quality of drinking water. 

On large work, the empty tubes are placed in large copper tanks, 



FILTERED WATER SUPPLY 219 

supplied through a ball cock, and the water after filtering through 
the tubes is conveyed from the collectors into other smaller tanks 
filled with animal charcoal. The double filtration is done entirely by 
gravity, and produces a perfectly pure water. The animal charcoal 
is placed in separate tanks on large work, simply to economize labor 
in cleaning. If the water delivered to filters of this class first passes 
through the house pressure filter, much of the heavier matter in 
suspension, sediment, etc., will be taken out, rendering less frequent 
attention to the gravity filter necessary. 

Pressure filters are of various form and make, using many differ- 
ent materials for the filtering medium. When stone or porcelain of 
a fine quality is used as the filtering medium, a very large percentage 
of the germ impurities may be removed. A very important feature of 
all pressure filters is the matter of frequent cleansing, which is abso- 
lutely essential. Certain makes of pressure filters depend upon large 
masses of bone-black for their filtering material, and experimental 
tests show this to be one of the most effective filtering mediums. 

One form of bone-black filter consists of two separate cylinders 
filled with bone-black, but so connected that by the use of a device 
known as a manipulator, the entire filter may be switched off from the 
house it supplies ; or the water supply may be divided and sent through 
each cylinder equally ; or the water may be sent through each cylinder 
in succession, thus filtering the same water twice; or the water may 
be filtered through either cylinder alone without efifecting in any way 
the supply of filtered water to the building supplied. Thus in this fil- 
ter, as in the one previously described, each cylinder may be washed by 
filtered water from the other, and while the entire filter is thus being 
cleaned, the supply to the house is not cut off or affected in any way. 

Experiment has shown that the effectiveness of a filtering 
medium depends directly upon the amount of air space contained 
between its particles. This is the reason that porous stone, porcelain, 
and such materials do such excellent filtering. Sand contains a great 
deal of air also, but it is claimed that bone-black contains nearly 
twice as much as sand, owing to the packing together of the latter. 
The action of filtration depends upon the action of infinite numbers 
of bacteria which live and multiply in the air spaces of the filtering 
medium. These bacteria must have air in order to perform their 
work, and air will not penetrate in sufficient quantity through sand 
to feed them at a depth of more than three or four feet. Air will 



220 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

penetrate much more thoroughly through bone-black, it is claimed, 
and therefore this material is preferable for filter use. 

The bone-black filter described above is cleaned by forcing com- 
pressed air into the mass of bone-black, thus breaking it up into 
particles, after which the flow of filtered water is sent through the 
material, thoroughly cleansing it, and carrying it ofif into the waste. 

In the use of sand in pressure filters, it is necessary to use a 
coagulating agent, owing to the closeness with which the sand packs. 
For this purpose alum is generally used, and its action is to coagulate 
the sediment and other impurities of the water into such large masses 
that they cannot pass through the sand. While the use of alum is 
not ordinarily harmful, it is not desirable, and it makes the water 
hard, which is undesirable for many manufacturing purposes. 

A great many forms of pressure filters are now made, most of 
them using either sand, bone-black, porcelain or stone as the filtering 
medium, and being provided with a variety of apparatus and methods 
for cleansing. 

There are three methods of providing a storage of filtered water, 
each having advantages of its own. 

Storage by means of the closed overhead tank is mostly used. 
The delivery pipe from filter to tank also answers as the down supply 
for the building, thus effecting a saving in pipe. An air vent at the 
top allows air to pass into and out of the tank, but prevents overflow. 
In this system no impurities can reach the water, which is not true 
of the open-tank system. 

Storage by the open gravity tank is often the most convenient 
to install in houses already provided with an attic tank. 

The open gravity tank is used when the filtered supply must be 
forced into it by a pump. 

The pressure, or compression system is also much used. Only 
pressure tanks should be used for this work, as others will not hold 
air sufficiently well to produce the desired compression. 

The pressure tank is placed close to the filter into which the 
latter delivers filtered water, and from the tank the house supply is 
taken, under pressure. When the tank is filled to its full capacity 
with water under air compression, the compression stops the action 
of the filter until water is drawn. The chief drawback to the use of 
this system is the use of tanks of too small capacity to provide a 
sufficient reserve supply of filtered water. 



Plate XXXVI 

PLUMBING FOR OFFICE BUILDINGS 



R/umbing f^r 

Off/cz Bui /ding 









Z>ovo- 



e7<^2le/' 





L>oyo- 



Si'°re 




<S2IZ2t. 



(2^°2le/ 




PLUMBING FOR OFFICE BUILDINGS 

The plumbing for office buildings is naturally varied, but consists 
largely of lines of lavatories and toilet rooms, both public and private, 
successive floors often being duplicates. The continuous vent prin- 
ciple may often be applied to lines of fixtures in office buildings to 
the benefit of the plumbing system and with a saving over common 
methods in both material and labor. In office buildings and other 
buildings containing many stories, the following limitations in the 
size of soil-pipe stacks should be observed. 

Regardless of the small number of fixtures that may enter it, a 
soil-pipe stack in any building between five and twelve stories in 
height should not be less than 5 in. in diameter, and in buildings of 
more than twelve stories, this size should never be less than 6 in. 

For sizes of main vent lines, the following regulations should 
be adhered to : 

Main vent lines for water closets on three or more floors should 
not be less than 3 in. in diameter ; a main vent line for fixtures other 
than water closets on less than seven floors should be not less than 
2 in. ; for less than nine stories 3-in. main vent ; for nine to sixteen 
stories, 4-in. main vent; for sixteen to twenty-two stories, 5-in. main 
vent; for twenty-two stories and up, 6-in. main vent should be used. 
These requirements result in centralizing the plumbing, as it would 
become an expensive matter to run large stacks through many stories 
simply to provide for a few fixtures. 

Whenever water closets are located on different floors, as in 

Plate 36, they should each be vented, with the exception of the top 

water closet. When two water closets, however, are located close 

together on the same floor, it is not essential to vent both fixtures 

if they waste into the same Y branch. It is sufficient to prevent 

siphonage, to vent only the water closet that is the farther from the 

stack. When two water closets discharge into a double fitting, a 

mutual vent may be taken from a hub near the junction of the two 

branches. Fittings of this kind are easily obtained, and it will be 

seen that the one vent taken from this point vents both the fixtures. 

223 



224 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

Many plumbing ordinances call for the venting of all water 
closets except a water closet above which no other fixtures enter. 
As a matter of fact, it is very difficult to siphon a water-closet trap 
even partially, by the discharge of other fixtures than water closets. 
Therefore, it does not seem necessary to vent any water closet which 
is the only fixture of its kind on the stack, provided the water closet 
is within 3 ft. of the stack. For the same reason it does not seem 
necessary to vent either of two water closets discharging into a double 
fitting, and located on the same floor close to the stack, if other water 
closets do not discharge into the same stack. Judgment must be used 
in these instances, however, for batteries of fixtures such as lava- 
tories might be located on the same stack as a single water closet, 
and be able to throw enough waste into the stack to endanger the 
water closet. 

If it could be depended upon that people of high intelligence 
were always to install the plumbing system, and also that in every 
case they could be depended upon to install the work honestly, there 
are many conditions constantly arising under which a safe piece of 
work could be constructed without the necessity of venting, whereas 
venting under the circumstances is required by ordinance. Because 
dependence of this nature cannot be made, iron-clad rules must be 
adopted to make the attainment of perfect work a surety. 



Plate XXXVII 

PLUMBING FOR PUBLIC TOILET ROOMS 
CAUSES OF SIPHONAGE IN THE UN- 
VENTED PLUxMBING SYSTEM 



\ 



/ 



Plumbing r^r 

Puh//c T^ilzh R^^ms 



12^ a22Z V<Z TO. / 



V(Z2Z/- 



^ 






; ^ ^ -, ^ ? V 










/ 



t )^. 



'x 



\ 



>v 



zn 










<3^jre^2z^2j:* <3^2 zjl e 




TVa/ez' 
C2<=><se/ 









PLUMBING FOR PUBLIC TOILET ROOMS 

The public toilet room of to-day is a far more sanitary institu- 
tion than that of a few years ago. This is due not to one thing only, 
but to several. 

The methods and practices of installing such work are superior 
to those of times past; the manufacturer has improved the construc- 
tion and quality of fixtures in a wonderful manner; and a plentiful 
supply of light and thorough ventilation are provided. 

The floor of the public toilet room, formerly of wood, which soon 
became reeking with filth, is now of tile or waterproof material, and 
adds beauty to the room. To provide for the thorough washing out 
of the room, one or more floor drains should be installed in each 
such room. For this purpose, an excellent device is that shown in 
Fig. B, Plate i6. It can be flushed thoroughly with hot water when 
desired, and thus kept in a clean condition. An important feature 
of the sanitary public toilet room is the thorough ventilation of the 
room. In order to succeed in providing perfect ventilation, means 
must be provided for bringing in a supply of fresh air if foul air is 
to be drawn out. In Fig. B of Plate 37 is shown a method much 
employed in providing this ventilation. It will be seen that the foul- 
air duct is run at the bottom of the room, each fixture stall or com- 
partment being connected to it by means of a small register opening 
into the flue. 

This flue should be connected with a flue constantly heated, or 
may be provided at its outer end with an exhaust fan. As the foul 
air is thus exhausted, fresh air enters the room at various points 
near the ceiling, through registers opening into a fresh-air duct. 

If sufficient fresh air does not enter through the flue by natural 

means, a fan may be employed to force in a sufficient supply. Fig. C 

shows in section the arrangement of flues, from which it will be 

seen that they are generally run in a space behind the partition, 

against which the fixtures are set. A-'ery often the tanks for the 

water closets and urinals are also concealed in this space, as shown 

in Plate 38. In the case of large toilet rooms, these flues may be 

continued for any desired distance, and on different sides of the room. 

227 



228 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

It will be found desirable to allow openings in both foul- and 
fresh-air ducts at intervals during their course outside of the fixture- 
stall openings. In this way a perfect exhaust of foul air and entrance 
of fresh air may be maintained, and the air of the room kept as nearly 
pure as possible for the air of a room of this character to be kept. 
In rooms of this nature, a change of air once in fifteen minutes should 
be provided for. In proportioning the area of these ducts, about 24 
sq. in. of duct area should ordinarily be allowed for each urinal, water 
closet, and slop sink, and about one half this amount for such fixtures 
as lavatories, and the effective area of ventilation through the regis- 
ters should be of the respective amount for each fixture named. It is 
better practice to raise all partitions of fixture compartments off the 
floor in public toilet room work, as there is then no opportunity for the 
collection of dirt and filth about the bases. If located in such a place 
that outside light cannot enter the toilet room, it should be lighted 
as thoroughly as possible from a light shaft or skylight, through 
windows opening into a lighted room, or by artificial means. Water- 
closet compartments are generally about 7 ft. in height above the 
floor, and urinal stalls about 4 ft. and 6 or 8 in. The best practice 
in the construction of toilet rooms to be used by the public, such as to 
be found in hotels, schools, factories, etc., calls for the use of the 
individual water closet. The range water closet as constructed and 
provided for to-day, is certainly far superior to the old style con- 
struction, but the fact remains that in its use there is greater danger 
of infection, and it is more difficult to keep the air of the room pure 
when ranges are used, as excreta must remain in the bowl until the 
automatic flush acts, whereas in the use of individual tank water 
closets this is carried away immediately after the fixture has been 
used. If the range is to be used, however, a large foul-air flue should 
be provided at the end of the range, and entered into a heated flue 
capable of producing a strong draught on the foul-air flue. 

It is quite customary to provide public comfort stations and toilet 
rooms with drinking fountains placed in close proximity to other 
fixtures. It would seem preferable and more cleanly to place this 
fixture outside of the toilet room, where it will not be in the midst 
of foul and impure odors. 

The only sanitary drinking fountain is that in which no drinking 
cup is required. 

Drinking fountains of this type are now much used, the water 



CAUSES OF SIPHONAGE 229 

issuing through bubbhng cups which may be adjusted to give any 
desired amount of water. The user simply places his mouth over 
the stream coming from the bubbling cup, his mouth coming in con- 
tact with nothing but the water. The ordinary fountain with its 
common drinking cup is unsanitary and a successful agent for the 
spreading of many diseases. These fountains are made singly in 
pedestal form, and in batteries of any number of bubbling cups, the 
latter being especially desirable for school use. 

In the installation of long lines of lavatories, each lavatory should 
be provided with its own trap, and separately vented. The use of a 
common waste pipe extending the whole length of a long battery 
of lavatories to a trap at the end is to be considered very poor prac- 
tice. It leaves a long line of foul waste pipe to send its odors into 
the room through each waste connection into it. 

In order to economize space, it often becomes necessary to locate 
a double battery of lavatories at the center of the public toilet room, a 
matter that is usually difficult owing to the impossibility usually, of 
running the waste and vent pipes concealed, as is desirable in work 
of this kind. Fig. A shows a method of accomplishing this result, 
which is considered further in connection with Plate 38. 

CAUSES OF SIPHONAGE IN THE UNVENTED ■ 

PLUMBING SYSTEM 

Under the subject of venting, taken up under Plate 11, it was 
seen that the trap seal may be lost by siphonage, the latter action 
following the formation in the drainage system of a vacuum or par- 
tial vacuum. Some of the ways in which this vacuum may be formed 
in the drainage system that is not provided with a system of trap 
vents, are considered in the following. 

Siphonage of a trap may be caused by the outflow of the waste 
from its own fixture, the momentum of which is sometimes sufficient 
to suck out a large part of the seal. When two fixture wastes branch 
into the same pipe, the passage of the waste from one fixture may 
fill the pipe sufficiently to produce a vacuum behind the column of 
waste, and thus siphon out the seal of the other trap. 

A fixture having a long line of horizontal waste is often en- 
dangered by a partial temporary stoppage in the horizontal part of 
the waste. When this stoppage is relieved, the waste filling the pipe 



230 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

may flow off so strongly as to produce a vacuum behind it and cause 
siphonage. This is true even of the water closet. The passage of 
a heavy volume of waste down a vertical stack may produce a partial 
vacuum at the entrance into the stack of another fixture, causing the 
trap of the latter to lose its seal. Fixtures at the foot of a stack are 
more open to the danger of trap siphonage than those nearer the top 
of the stack. As the lower floors are reached, more waste fills the 
stack than at points farther up, and as this heavy volume of waste 
strikes the horizontal line it is naturally impeded, and more nearly 
fills the pipe, with a consequent greater danger of producing a vacuum 
followed by the siphonage of trap seals. 

These conditions that have been described are the cause of many 
of the rules regulating the construction of plumbing, such as the 
prohibition of quarter-bends on the drainage system, for instance, 
the use of which would impede the outflow of waste far more than 
the Y branch and eighth-bend form of connection between vertical 
and horizontal lines. 



Plate XXXVIII 

PLUMBING FOR PUBLIC TOILET ROOMS 



iCSk 



^, , r Rla/-z 38, 

Hlumbing f^r 

Rublic T<=>//ef' R^^ms 

— -^ 



1 




C.I. 
Q^roTTie 



Iizh 
j<=>jz/oI 



fl ^e^e-Tcj 






PLUMBING FOR PUBLIC TOILET ROOMS 

In Fig. A of Plate 37 and Fig. E of Plate 38 are shown two 
views, front and end, of double batteries of lavatories installed at the 
center of the public toilet room, or in such location that no partition 
may be used for concealing the waste and vent piping. 

Each individual lavatory is separately trapped and provided with 
a continuous vent, this work showing the principle of continuous 
venting applied somewhat differently than in Plates 26, 27, and 28, 
though with equal effectiveness. In Fig. A, Plate 37, it is intended 
to show the main horizontal waste pipe run above the floor, while in 
Fig. E, Plate 38, the main is run below the floor, and branch wastes 
connected from each fixture. 

Either method that is most desirable may be used. The chief 
feature of this work is the concealment of the main vent line and 
branch vents inside a box formed by the marble backs of the two 
lines of fixtures, and a piece of marble set on top. The marble box 
runs the entire length of the line, which may rise vertically to run to 
a vertical vent stack at any intermediate point, as in Fig. A, or at 
either end. The lavatories in both illustrations are of porcelain or 
porcelain-lined ware, and supported on cast-iron standards. In Fig. 
A, the marble backs run down to the floor, allowing all but the traps 
to be concealed in the space between the two marble back slabs, while 
in the case of Fig: E the space below the lavatories is open, and a 
part of the work is in sight. 

The use of continuous vents is of great advantage in this in- 
stance, as it not only allows the work to be done in a more sanitary 
manner, more neatly and compactly than by ordinary methods, but 
at far less cost of labor and material. This last advantage is gained 
in the use of continuous vents on nearly all work where fixtures 
back up to each other in pairs, whether under such circumstances 
as these or on opposite sides of a partition. 

Under ordinary circumstances, it is not difficult to so construct 
the toilet room that much of the work may be concealed in open 
spaces behind partitions. 

233 



234 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

In Fig. C, for instance, the flush valves for a hne of water closets 
may be thus concealed, and as in Fig. D, the flush tanks, whether 
high or low, and the horizontal soil pipe may both be concealed. 

Concealment of working parts, such as flush valves and tanks, 
with their chains and pulls, is often very desirable, especially in school 
and factory work, where there is danger of damage due to mischiev- 
ous tampering with such devices. When so concealed, however, the 
working parts should be made accessible for repairs and inspection. 

The use of the circuit system of venting is often of much advan- 
tage in public toilet rooms, especially in connection with lines of water 
closets. It is applied in the case of Fig. A, and might be applied to 
equal advantage in Fig. D. 

The choice of water closets for public toilet-room work is almost 
unlimited, if the matter of expense is not to be considered. Fig. D 
shows a very desirable form in many respects. It is so constructed 
that it fits scjuarely into the corner made by the partition, and may 
be made much more firm and secure against accidental blows by 
being bolted both to the floor and to the partition. It has a rear 
outlet which allows the soil pipe to be run above the floor. This 
method of running the soil pipe and connecting the water closets is 
of special value in fire-proof buildings and for public buildings of 
various kinds. The soil pipe is supported on standards, the entire 
work presenting a very neat appearance. In Fig. B a very con- 
venient form of water closet is shown, provided with a large local 
vent connection, which is a part of the bowl itself. This local vent 
connection gives a much more finished appearance to the fixture than 
a connection made with metal pipe. The connection is designed to 
project into a foul-air flue located back of the partition against which 
the water closets are set. 

When water closets of public toilet rooms are flushed by indi- 
vidual flush tanks, the capacity of the latter should not be less than 
for other uses, that is, not less than of 5 gallons capacity. 

When supplied from an automatic flush tank, however, the latter 
should be of such capacity that each water closet on the line shall 
be flushed by at least four gallons of water at each discharge of 
the tank. 

All lip urinals, water closets, and slop sinks used in public toilet 
rooms should be of the flushing-rim type, this form of fixture being 
flushed and cleansed more thoroughly than others. 



Plate XXXIX 

PLUMBING FOR BATH ESTABLISHMENT- 
TANKS FOR STORAGE AND SUPPLY 



r^, , . J, R/a/-(Z 39. 

P/umb/ng f^r 

Bof-h E>5/'abJi^hmen/' 






\ 






C'=^2zcrete 

<S?rJi77Z77Z27l^ 



Je)2^C22Z 

^ 




e7o <37«=>^.Ze/' 




Co.73 crefe 





PLUMBING FOR BATH ESTABLISHMENT 

Systems of plumbing such as that shown in Plate 39 are to be 
found in Turkish-bath establishments, clubs, Y. M. C. A. buildings, 
and in other like institutions. Such a system usually includes a num- 
ber of shower-bath compartments, other compartments for tub baths, 
swimming pool, lines of lavatories, and ample toilet arrangements. 

A very important feature in the bath establishment is the liberal 
use of floor drains, for a great deal of water naturally falls upon 
the floors; and in addition, abundant opportunity must be provided 
for flushing and thoroughly cleansing. Owing to impurities washed 
from the skin, the bath rooms of an establishment of this kind may 
become exceedingly filthy unless constant attention is given them. 
For this reason many such bath rooms are supplied with flushing- 
rim floor drains provided with hot- and cold-water connections, which 
are very effectual in keeping such drains in a sanitary condition. 

All floors and walls of bath establishments should be of tile or 
waterproof material. The walls and ceilings should never be cov- 
ered with any material that may absorb moisture and odors. 

Generally the waste from a line of shower baths is carried off 
in a gutter at the rear of the stalls, the stall floors being graded so 
that all water will flow into the gutter. 

The gutter may be formed in the floor itself or of slate or marble 
set into the floor for this purpose, or it may be of cast iron. The 
gutter should be graded to its outlet. The outlet should connect into 
a cast or wrought-iron waste line, and be provided with a trap, the 
size of which should be determined by the number of shower baths 
which are served, the size generally being from 2 to 4 in. 

This trap should be provided with a 2-in. vent and cleanouts. 

The plunge or swimming pool should waste through a 4-in. trap, 
provided with a 2-in. vent and cleanouts of the same size as the trap. 
The bottom of the pool should be graded toward the outlet end. The 
swimming pool should be provided with ladders reaching down into 
it, and a brass hand rail running completely around it. 

The water of the swimming pool, when constantly in use, should 

be changed at least once in seven hours. 

237 



238 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

Although not seen in Plate 39, the swimming pool should be 
provided with an overflow. The plunge bath is now to be found 
occasionally in the basement of fine residences, and the use of shower 
apparatus of extensive nature has become a common feature of high- 
grade and well-appointed bath rooms. In some sections, where the 
water supply is not remarkably clear, the filtering of the water used 
in the bath establishment will be found to add much to its luxuries. 
As in the case of other public toilet rooms, it sometimes becomes 
necessar)^ to provide a storage of water to be used at such times as 
the regular supply is inadequate. 

Concerning the use of tanks, the following remarks may be of 
value : 

TANKS FOR STORAGE AND SUPPLY 

Formerly the attic tank, which supplied the house with water 
under tank pressure, was of large size, holding several hundred gal- 
lons. To-day, however, much smaller tanks are used for this purpose. 
They are supplied with a ball cock, thus allowing water to enter the 
tank at the same rate that it is drawn out. 

The storage tank, although it may be used for the same pur- 
pose and in the same way as the common attic tank, is generally 
used as an auxiliary to the pressure system of supply, and may be 
of any size, from a capacity of a few hundred gallons to many thou- 
sands. These tanks should be of wood or iron, or of wood lined 
with heavy tinned sheet copper. 

The best materials for wooden tanks are cypress, white and 
yellow pine, cypress being the most satisfactory. 

The storage tank should be supported on heavy iron beams 
which will not sag under the immense weight of the tank and its 
contents. 

In many cases the storage tank must be placed above the point 
that the pressure supply can reach. Its supply must then be pumped 
into it. In high buildings it often happens that during the day time, 
when the mains are being heavily drawn on, the street pressure is 
not sufficient to force water into the tank, but during the night it is 
sufficient. A supply can thus be stored at night for use during the 
day time on those floors not reached by the city pressure. 

Tanks should always be covered in order to keep out dust, foul 
gases, and odors. 



Plate XL 

PLUMBING FOR ENGINE HOUSE AND 
STABLES— FACTORY PLUMBING 



F^lumbing f^r 






Engine H'=^use ^ ^'j^_^. e/c o^ 










Facf-^ry R/umbing 






^ 



© 
\ 



o 
/ 



W:. 



m. 



ti±i e±i 



^ 



© 



^ Jh'^^cher. 



(§ 



^ 



JVC?(52Z. <^22ZJ% 



^ L/l'22Z.o2d> 

=V///////A "^^^^^^ 



i^22Zh 



_l I 1_ 



"T 1 r- 



v^ 



-1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 i n 






m7<^IC ^22Z2Z^ ^ 



^ 



n9- B. ^.,^^ y-,^^ rig- c. 




nso. 




PLUMBING FOR ENGINE HOUSE AND STABLES 

In Plate 40 is shown the elevation of a system of plumbing for 
an engine house. The same style of work may also be used in 
private stables. 

In addition to the connections shown, there are usually toilet 
accommodations for the hostler, in the case of the stable, and bath 
rooms and toilet fixtures for the engine house. Floor drains should 
be placed in the apparatus room, wash rooms, hose tower, etc. The 
construction and connection of stall sinks is shown in detail by 
Plate 10. Two adjacent stall sinks may be served by the same trap. 

The plumbing system for a stable should be provided with the 
same sanitary features as for the house system. A separate main 
drain should be provided for it to the street sewer, which should not 
be connected with the house drain of any building. 

Even under the most favorable conditions, more or less solid 
matter from the stalls will find its way into the drain, and the fol- 
lowing provision is of advantage. All wastes from stables, includ- 
ing waste from wash rooms, manure pits, etc., may, before entering 
the street sewer, be discharged into a catch basin located under- 
ground outside of the stable. The catch basin may be constructed 
of brick or of cast iron, and should be water-tight, with a tight cover, 
and properly vented. The outlet from the catch basin may be con- 
nected to the stable sewer or street sewer. 



FACTORY PLUMBING 

The sanitary arrangements of well-appointed factories of the 

present day are of as high an excellence as for schools and other 

institutions. There is no reason why they should not be of a high 

standard, but it is true that, until within a comparatively few years, 

they have often been given scant attention. 

The ventilation of the toilet room should be on the same scale 

241 



242 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

and as thorough as that of other pubhc toilet rooms. In Fig. B is 
shown a floor plan of part of a factory toilet room. 

As will be seen, it is thoroughly lighted from outside windows 
and also by inside windows, the latter admitting light from the out- 
side to the wash room. The floor should be constructed of water- 
proofed concrete, and provided with a floor drain, as the thorough 
flushing out of such rooms is very essential. 

A sill cock, conveniently located, will be found convenient in sup- 
plying water for this purpose. 

In Fig. D is shown the common method of venting such a line 
of water closets and the connection of the main horizontal vent line 
into the main vent stack. The use of the circuit-vent system, as 
shown in Plate 29, is advantageous in such work, and results in 
reducing the cost of installation. 

In buildings of factory construction, horizontal waste and soil 
lines may be run on the ceiling of the floor below, thus making such 
lines, with their cleanouts, accessible from the floor below. It may 
be stated that, in using the circuit and loop vents, it is desirable to 
run the horizontal soil line as close to the bases of the water closets 
as possible. The line of water closets shown is provided with local 
vents. Ventilation by means of fresh and foul-air flues and fans, as 
described in Plate 37, is preferable for large toilet rooms to the 
system shown in Fig. D, as it is more thorough, purifying the air of 
the entire room more effectually. The wash sink for factory use is 
an important matter. 

In Fig. B a double line of wash sinks is shown, and in Fig. C 
an end view of the same. The sinks shown are of enameled cast 
iron, cast in sections, thus allowing any length of sink to be used. 
They are supported on cast-iron standards, and made in a variety 
of forms. The waste may be arranged as in Fig. C, which shows a 
short waste connection above the floor, leading into a trap which 
serves both lines, the horizontal waste being of cast or wrought iron 
and hung on the ceiling below. In factory and school plumbing sys- 
tems it is well to have as little piping exposed as possible, owing to 
the rough and careless usage given it. 

The size of the waste from the factory sink should not be less 
than 2 in., and 3 in. for sinks of great length. The trap should be 
vented with 2-in. cast- or wrought-iron pipe, which is carried verti- 
cally to the ceiling, and then horizontally into the nearest vent stack. 



Plate XLI 



AUTOMATIC FLUSHING FOR SCHOOLS, 
FACTORIES, ETC. 



Autc:>nioh'c r/ushing f<=>r 
^^^^ v5c/? o o/^ ^ Fuc/-^rie>5, etc. 








\ 




^?y vv vy 



^ — ^ 



±:^:x 



r — N 



' ^ , _\ L 






' -^ '—^ 



I I I 



I I 









^=^=^ 



I I 



I I I I 



f/^. c. 




AUTOMATIC FLUSHING FOR SCHOOLS, 
FACTORIES, ETC. 

It is often desirable to provide groups of such fixtures as water 
closets and urinals with automatic flushing, such provision being 
specially valuable in school and factory use, and often in public work, 
such as railway-station toilet rooms, public comfort stations, etc. 
In the use of any toilet room for the accommodation of the public, 
the fixtures are bound to be used by many people who are ignorant 
or careless in the matter of flushing fixtures after having used them. 
In the matter of urinals, especially, the flushing of them is often left 
to the attention of an attendant who may be careless in perform- 
ing this duty. In school houses particularly, small children using 
the fixtures cannot always be expected to understand the necessity 
of flushing water closets. Owing to these circumstances and many 
others, the periodic and automatic flushing of fixtures is of much 
advantage in maintaining wholesome toilet rooms. 

In Fig. A, Plate 41, is shown a sectional view of a form of 
automatic flush tank, the action of which is as follows: 

The admission of water to the automatic tank is not controlled 
by ball cock, as the supply must be constant. The interval between 
flushes depends upon the amount of water flowing into the tank, 
which is regulated by the valve G. The principal working parts of 
the flushing device consist of a circular vessel D, which is supported 
by several wires attached to the outer circular compartment B. The 
vessel D, is filled with water, into which a tube C, projects. Out- 
side of C is a hollow cylinder H, closed at its upper end, and sup- 
plied with holes at the bottom, through which the water may enter. 
As the water rises in the tank, it fills the space between the tubs C 
and the cylinder H, the air in the tube and at the top of the cylinder 
being confined between the rising level of the water and the water 
seal of D. This air becomes more and more compressed as the water 
rises, until the pressure exerted is sufficient to force the water out 
of D. This produces a vacuum at the bottom of the tube, and the 
compression being relieved, atmospheric pressure on the surface of 

24s 



246 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

the water in the tank will force it into the tube C, and into the flush 
pipe A, which conveys it to the different fixtures to be flushed. 

This siphonic action continues until the water in the tank drops 
to such a point that air is admitted through the holes M, when the 
action stops, the tank again beginning to fill for the next flush. 

Fig'. B shows the general plan of connections between the tank 
and the fixtures. 

The principles governing the construction, locating, etc., of stor- 
age tanks also apply to automatic flush tanks, and are to be found 
under Plate 39. Successive flushes should not be more than seven 
minutes apart. A great objection to automatic flushing is that when- 
ever water closets or urinals are used, the excreta entering them must 
remain in the fixture, giving off impure odors into the toilet room, 
until the next flush takes place. For this reason it is necessary to 
provide each water closet and each urinal of an automatically flushed 
system with strong-acting local vents. 

The automatic flush tank should be of sufficient size to discharge 
into each fixture at least four gallons of water at each flush. The 
copper lining for the automatic flush tank, and for all other flush 
tanks, should not be less than 10 ounces. This weight is ordinarily 
used for tank linings, but a heavier grade of metal is preferable. 

Another disadvantage in the use of the automatic flush tank is 
the large amount of water used, which is a matter of importance if 
a metered public supply is to be used, owing to cost of water. In 
many instances however, institutions, factories, and hotels have a 
large private supply, the use of which is not restricted. When used 
in connection with many systems, the periodic flushing must go on 
without interruption, but in the case of school buildings the supply 
to the tank may be shut off when school is not in session. In con- 
nection with plumbing systems automatically flushed, water closets 
and urinals in private toilet rooms and bath rooms may not be con- 
nected to the automatic flush if it is desirable to keep down the cost 
of water used. 

Fig. C, Plate 41, shows a form of automatically flushed urinal, 
of excellent design. 

It is made of porcelain, or porcelain-lined material, is free from 
exposed metal parts which may corrode, and is well adapted to public 
toilet rooms. 

A cross section of a urinal of this type may be seen in Fig. E, 



AUTOMATIC FLUSHING 247 

Plate 43, from which it will be observed that a large body of water 
always stands in the fixture, the tank after completing its flush 
always providing this body of water, which stands in the urinal until 
the succeeding flush. A double trap is provided on the outlet of this 
urinal, one trap being above the other. When the tank flushes, the 
air in the upper trap becomes rarefied — that is, partially exhausted — 
sufficiently to set in action a strong siphon which draws the entire 
contents of the urinal out of the fixture and into the waste. AVhen 
the water in the tank drops to a certain level, air is admitted to the 
pipe running from the tank to the crown of the upper trap, the 
admission of this air to the trap breaking the siphon. 

When the siphon breaks, the water at that time in the urinal, 
remains there until the next flush. No water is wasted in starting 
this siphon, every drop of water passing out of the tank being used 
in cleansing the fixture. A horizontal perforated pipe at the back 
of the urinal, and connected with the vertical flush pipe from the 
tank, thoroughly flushes and cleanses the back of the urinal. This 
same action is applied in the flushing of water-closet ranges. Both 
range and urinal can be installed of any number of compartments 
and supplied with a tank of size to correspond. 

Slop sinks, in addition to water closets and urinals, may be 
automatically flushed. 

There is a sink for factory use, made of slate, or wood lined 
with sheet copper, and of any desired length, which is comparatively 
self-cleansing. 

The sink is made with an outer and inner compartment, the 
latter running through the center of the sink, with space for wash- 
ing on either side. There is also a narrow space at the end of the 
inner compartment, between it and the outer compartment, in which 
a standing overfl.ow is located, connected into the waste. A line of 
supply pipe runs above and over the center of the sink, and is pro- 
vided with sprays which throw the water down into the center 
compartment, from which it overflows into the main body of the 
sink. Thus the first washing may be done in the outer compart- 
ment, with clean water always in the inner compartment for use in 
face washing. 

In factories employing a high grade of help, the line or battery 
of lavatories shown in Fig. A of Plate 37, and Fig. E of Plate 38 
is much in use. 



Plate XLII 

THE USE OF FLUSHING VALVES 



P/ote 4Z, 



r/ushing l/c7/i/(2S 




THE USE OF FLUSHING VALVES 

Flush valves are used in place of tanks in the flushing of 
water closets, urinals, and slop sinks. They may be placed directly 
back of and above the fixtures which they serve, or may be con- 
cealed behind partitions, as shown in Figs. C and D of Plate 42. 

Flush valves may be operated either under direct pressure, as 
in Fig. B, or under tank pressure, as in Fig. A. The operation of 
flush valves under tank pressure is generally the more satisfactory 
method, as there is always a storage of water in the event of an 
interruption of the public suppty, and the pressure is more positive 
and reliable. The tank pressure is always uniform, while direct 
pressure is extremely variable, which is an undesirable feature in 
not only this work, but in all branches of supply work. When a 
storage tank is used, the height of the tank above the highest flush 
valve should not be less than 10 ft. if good service is to be expected. 

Flush valves may be obtained that are to be connected with the 
supply pipe coming directly through the wall back of the valve, or 
for either right- or left-hand side connection. 

The operation of most flush valves is similar in its general 
features. This action is as follows: When the handle is released 
after flushing, the valve is closed automatically by a jet of water 
discharged from the pressure. side of the valve into and through a 
by-pass to the valve chamber beyond the piston head, which it 
gradually forces onto its seat. This by-pass is one of the sources 
of. trouble, as any sand or other solid substance will clog up the 
passage and stop the passage of the water jet into the valve cham- 
ber. Some valves are provided with a device for holding back any 
such harmful solids. 

It is difficult to state definitely proper sizes of pipes and connec- 
tions for flush valves, as this information, given by manufacturers 
of different forms of flush valves, varies greatly, depending upon the 
different forms and construction of valves and upon the pressures 
that they are designed to work under. Some manufacturers adver- 
tise flush valves which work under pressures between 10 and 200 

251 



252 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

pounds, and are not affected in their operation by a variation between 
these two points. 

Other makes of flush valves, however, are made in different 
styles, for different pressures. Owing to inability to give absolutely 
definite data which will cover all makes of flush valves, the follow- 
ing information is given in general, and may or may not be correct 
in the case of certain makes. Generally a pressure of 8 to lo pounds 
is required for the operation of flush valves under direct pressure, 
and supply pipes serving buildings in which flush valves are used 
should be of such sizes and so installed that the drawing of water at 
fixtures will not reduce the pressure at any flush valve below the 
amount named. 

In general, the size of service pipe for flush valves is from i^ 
to i^ in., when operated by direct pressure, for valves up to four 
in number, and these sizes should be increased for larger numbers. 

When working under tank pressure, a main line of supply pipe 
is run down to the several floors, branches being taken to the dif- 
ferent fixtures to be supplied. 

A 1 3/4 -in. main is ample for from one to four fixtures. If there 
is more than this number of fixtures, it is well in ordinary build- 
ings to carry a 2-in. supply down from the tank lo or 15 ft., reduc- 
ing to 13^ in. for the rest of the distance, and if the building is ten 
stories or more in height, the lower floors may be reduced to 1^4 
and I in. 

Flush valves for urinal use are often smaller in size than those 
designed for water-closet use, and have smaller supply connections. 
For low pressures a i^-in. connection to the flush valve is used, and 
for ordinary pressures i^ in. is the general size. 

The storage tank for use in connection with flush valves should 
have a capacity, whenever possible, of about 6 gallons per fixture. 
This capacity is the requirement when a small number of flush valves 
are installed. On large systems, where a large number of valves are 
used, it is not necessary to provide such liberal storage, as the amount 
named per fixture allows for two successive flushes, and in large 
work it is almost impossible that all, or anywhere near all, of the 
fixtures served will be flushed at the same time. Therefore the size 
of the tank may be reduced from the capacity named, as may be cor- 
rect for each separate system. A liberal capacity of storage is always 
desirable, however. 



Plate XLIII 

URINALS FOR PUBLIC TOILET ROOMS 



R/o/-e 43. 



Ur/na/s f<=>r- 



Rub/ic 

Vezzf ^^ 




7o//e/- f?^<=>rns 



1^ 













Tzecfing ^ 

if\ ', >. /, t> >> // ^ 




^ ^^lo^e 



////J// 



URINALS FOR PUBLIC TOILET ROOMS 

Owing to the nature of the waste that enters the urinal, it is 
the most difficult of all toilet-room fixtures to keep in a clean and 
sanitary condition. 

The foul air noticed in many public toilet rooms that are not 
properly provided for and attended to, is due in a large measure to 
foul urinals, this cause no doubt, being greater than the use of 
water closets. The local vent may be very effectively applied to the 
urinal, and results in lessening the nuisance mentioned very percep- 
tibly. In Fig. A, Plate 43, is shown a method of applying the local 
vent to the single urinal or to groups of them when of the lip pattern. 
The piping for the urinal is concealed behind the back urinal slab 
or behind a partition. From the house side of the urinal trap the 
local vent connection is made, it being connected directly into a main 
horizontal local vent line, which should be carried into a heated flue 
under the same conditions as prescribed for the local vent serving a 
line of water closets. The main should be proportioned in size so 
that at any point its area shall be equal to the combined areas of 
the branch vents that have been connected into it. A strong draft 
in the heated flue will result not only in drawing the foul odors out 
of the connections, but from the fixture itself, and from the room. 
It is very necessary that a heated flue should be used, and for the 
ventilation of large toilet rooms a special flue should be used and 
kept heated the year round. The connection of the local vent does 
not interfere with the connection of the trap vent, which is, of course, 
taken off the other side of the trap, and may be connected into a 
main vent line above the floor, the trap entering a main line of waste 
either above or below the floor. In Fig. D is shown a system of 
local venting applied to another form of urinal. These vents should 
also enter a heated flue. In order to better show the remaining con- 
nections, the trap vents have been omitted in Fig. D. The local vent- 
ing of urinal traps has the disadvantage of producing on the seals 
a higher rate of evaporation, but when used in public toilet rooms 
the urinals are more or less constantly in use, and the loss of seal 

255 



256 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

thereby continually renewed. In the case of a urinal seldom used, 
it would be unwise for this reason, to apply the local vent. 

As to the form in which the urinal is made there is a great 
variety of choice. 

One of the most common forms is the lip urinal, shown in 
Fig. A, which is supported on a slate or marble back by means of 
bolts, and receives its flush through a urinal cock by direct pressure 
or from a tank located above it, which may or may not be of auto- 
matic action. In Plate 44 is shown a line of these fixtures, from 
which it will be seen that such a line may be provided with con- 
tinuous vents to advantage. 

The various forms of slate urinals are also very common. Figs. 
B and C show two of these forms, the latter showing a double line 
with single dividing partition. In the urinal of Fig. B, the waste, 
striking the two drip slabs, is washed down into a gutter, formed 
in the concrete floor, by means of water discharged from two per- 
porated flush pipes running lengthwise. This flush keeps the slabs 
wet at all times, all liquids being washed away as they fall upon the 
slab. More commonly in use than this type of urinal, however, is 
that shown in Fig. C, which consists of a vertical drip slab with 
perforated flush pipe, the waste liquids being washed into the cement 
gutter or into a cast-iron gutter. The ends of such gutters should 
be provided with metal connections and cast- or wrought-iron trap 
of not less than 2 in. diameter connected into the waste. All urinals 
should be provided with slate or marble floor slabs, and any wall 
surface that is exposed and within 5 ft. of a urinal should be con- 
structed of Portland cement or other impervious material. The 
urinal gutter should also be constructed of like material. 

In connection with the cast-iron urinal gutter mentioned above, 
it should be added that to be strictly sanitary the gutter should be 
lined with enamel, in order to prevent any corrosion due to the 
presence of the urine in the waste. All lip urinals should be of the 
flushing-rim pattern, in order that all surfaces of the urinal may be 
as thoroughly scoured and cleansed by the flush as possible. In 
Fig. D is shown a set of three porcelain urinals, flushed by means 
of an automatic flush tank. 

The porcelain urinal is a massive fixture and especially adapted 
to the service of public toilet rooms and comfort stations, which de- 
mand the most perfect sanitary conditions possible, usually without 



URINALS FOR PUBLIC TOILET ROOMS 257 

question of expense. The flush pipe is concealed in the fixture itself, 
the flush entering each urinal through a spreader, which throws it 
upon every part of the exposed surfaces, these surfaces being so 
formed as to allow the flush to cleanse them to the best advantage. 
An excellent feature of this form of urinal is that no metal parts or 
trimmings are exposed, and thus there is nothing which may corrode 
by contact with the urine. The addition of the local vent completes 
in this fixture the highest sanitary excellence to be found in urinal 
construction. The porcelain trough urinal shown in elevation in 
Fig. C, Plate 41, and in section in Fig. E, Plate 43, has been fully 
described under the former plate, and is to be considered an excellent 
fixture for public toilet-room work. 

The pedestal urinal of porcelain, is one of the latest types of 
urinal to appear on the market, and is also of much excellence. An- 
other recent urinal of high-grade construction is the siphon-jet urinal, 
supplied from a tank. In this fixture, a heavy body of water is at 
all times maintained. When the tank is operated, the flush enters 
through the flushing rim and through a jet, in the same manner as 
in the siphon-jet water closet. This action results in siphoning the 
entire body of water out of the fixture, which is of the lip pattern. 

Flushing valves may be applied to the urinal to advantage, as 
shown in Plate 42. These valves may be concealed, as in Fig. C, 
or exposed, as in Figs. A and B. 

Automatic flushing of urinals, as illustrated and considered in 
Plate 41, is along the line of good practice. When the flushing of 
this fixture is left to the user of it, this important matter is often 
neglected, the result being a foul-smelling toilet room. Automatic 
flushing does away with much of the nuisance arising from this 
cause. 

In Plate 44 a line of urinals is shown in connection with the 
Durham system. The drainage of this system is entirely of wrought- 
iron or steel pipe, upon which the action of the acids in the urine 
passing from the urinals is especially harmful. This action is far 
less serious on cast-iron pipe, and presents additional argument in 
favor of the use of the latter material for drainage purposes. 

As elsewhere intimated, the public toilet room should be pro- 
vided with the advantage of good ventilation and with an abundant 
supply of light. Without these advantages the urinal becomes a foul 
and unsanitary fixture. 



Plate XLIV 



THE DURHAM SYSTEM— THE DESTRUC- 
TION OF PIPES BY ELECTROLYSIS 



The. Durham 

v5 y 3 tern 











f=T" 1 






o3j 



— • ' > > > >/// 
o^ a. ^.I, 



^mjU jl 1 1 1 H l-L-T-rU ? ? / / ? \Xr-7-4X^A 



«^ 




Ca^/- Iron 
Dro/'noc^e 





Jheod. 



n \\ \\ ,,v>-= v\\ 
,^>.^/>/!:r"j>fT//l|/ 



1 



THE DURHAM SYSTEM 



There is no difference in the principles of construction between 
the Durham system and the plumbing system as ordinarily con- 
structed. The only difference in the Durham system is that it is 
constructed entirely of wrought-iron threaded pipe and cast-iron 
fittings. 

On the Durham system all joints are made with screw threads, 
no caulked lead joints being used. The Durham system is shown in 
Plate 44, with a detail in section, of the style of cast-iron fitting used 
on Durham. Fittings of other than recessed construction should not 
be used on any part of the drainage system. On vent work in con- 
nection with the Durham drainage system, galvanized, cast, or mal- 
leable steam and water fittings of ordinary make may be used. The 
purpose in using recessed fittings is that the alignment of the inside 
surface of drainage pipe and fittings may be as even as possible, with 
no ends of pipes that screw into fittings presenting shoulders against 
which solid matter flowing in the waste may find lodgment. 

The use of cast-iron pipe and fittings is free from this trouble, 
for the hubs are sufficiently recessed to allow an even inside align- 
ment. In the use of common steam and water fittings on cast-iron 
drainage work, there being no recesses in such fittings, the ends of 
all pipes entering fittings present shoulders against w^hich lint and 
other materials in the waste may collect. It may be stated, however, 
that this trouble is experienced in a greater degree in connection 
with Durham work than in cast-iron soil piping. For this reason, 
special care should be taken in cutting wrought-iron pipe for drainage 
use, and all burs on the ends of such pipes should be reamed out. 
The weights of wrought-iron pipe for drainage purposes should not 



be less than the following: 



Diameter of Pipe 



Weight per Foot 



i^ in 2.68 lbs. 



2 



2 

3 

3/2 

4 



3.61 

5-74 

7-54 

9 
10.66 



4/ " 12.34 



Diameter of Pipe 

5 in... 

6 " . . . 



7 
8 

9 
10 



Weight per Foot 

. 14.5 lbs. 

. 18.76 " 

. 23.27 " 

. 28.18 " 

• 33-7 " 

. 40.06 " 



261 



262 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

All fittings used on Durham work and on all vent work should 
be galvanized. Short nipples, in which the unthreaded part is less 
than iVz in. long, should be made of weight and thickness known 
as " extra heavy " or " extra strong." This provision is to guard 
against crushing and splitting, which is liable to happen in the use 
of nipples made of ordinary pipe. 

Joints on the Durham system should be made up with red or 
white lead, applied to the male part of the thread. When thus applied 
there is less opportunity for the lead to squeeze through into the 
interior of the pipe and form an obstruction. 

Care should be taken that all such obstructions are removed when 
the joint is made. When wrought-iron or brass pipe is connected 
into cast-iron pipe, the connection may be made by a caulked lead 
joint or by a screw joint. 

Connections between lead and wrought-iron pipes may be made 
by means of a brass ferrule caulked or screwed into the cast iron, 
the lead connection to the ferrule being made by means of a wiped 
joint. 

An advantage claimed for the Durham system by its friends, is 
that a screw joint, being as strong as the pipe is, there are no weak 
points in .a line of such pipe, whereas it would be folly to claim any 
such thing as this regarding a line of cast-iron pipe with its caulked 
joints. This argument is followed by the claim that the above being 
true as regards a vertical line of wrought-iron pipe, so long as it 
rests at its base on a firm foundation, there is no necessity for side 
supports, and that it may be carried thus, through the height of the 
tallest buildings. This would not seem plausible, for the reason that 
any line of drainage pipe, whether vertical or horizontal, of cast or 
wrought iron, should be given lateral support in order that it may 
be rigid and not subject to any lateral movement. Even though the 
screw joint is a strong one, lateral motion in a long line of pipe will 
often result in snapping the pipe at one of the screw joints or in 
breaking a fitting. Furthermore, if a vertical line of cast-iron drain- 
age pipe be given the support that it should receive, it will not sag 
or settle so that the caulked joints will be forced out of the hubs, 
a claim that is made against the use of cast-iron pipe. It is true that 
in the construction of the plumbing system the proper supporting of 
heavy piping is not given the attention that it should receive, damage 
to caulked joints often resulting thereby. It is also true that lines of 



THE DURHAM SYSTEM 263 

cast-iron pipe properly provided for, suffer no more from broken joints 
than wrought-iron lines, and are free from certain serious evils which 
wrought iron is subject to. The Durham system, which has received 
its name from the inventor of certain patents on the application of 
wrought-iron pipes to drainage systems, is now extensively used in 
high city buildings, mainly because of the advantages thus claimed 
for the system, and it is a question whether such extensive use would 
have resulted if the cast-iron system had been properly handled. It 
has often been placed in high buildings with not much more pro- 
vision being made for supporting its great weight than is made in 
the system of a private residence, and it is mainly due to this cause 
that cast iron has been somewhat superseded in very large work. 
There are many uses to which iron piping is put, in which the use 
of wrought iron for drainage purposes is preferable. Greenhouse 
work is an important instance. In this work, where there is much 
expansion and contraction due to changes in temperature, the caulked 
joint will not stand nearly so well as the screw joint. This is also 
many times true in the case of factory work, where constant and 
severe vibration tends to start the caulked joints of cast-iron piping. 
• A very strong argument against the use of the Durham system 
is the fact that wrought-iron pipe has a much shorter term of life 
than cast-iron pipe, particularly when buried underground. This fact 
is testified to very strongly by the demand made by all plumbing 
ordinances dealing with the subject of the Durham system, that when- 
ever pipes connected with the system are to be run underground, 
such pipes shall be of cast iron. This feature appears in the illus- 
tration in Plate 44. Regarding the life of wrought-iron pipe, it may 
be stated that under certain unfavorable conditions, plain wrought- 
iron piping that has been installed not longer than eight to ten years 
has had to be renewed, owing to its deterioration. 

Steel pipe is much used in place of wrought iron, many times 
indeed, under the impression that it is wrought iron. 

This material is far shorter lived than even wrought iron, and 
is entirely unsuited to the plumbing system, which should be expected 
to render service almost as long as the house in which it is placed: 

The only way in which either wrought-iron or steel pipe can be 
used with any degree of safety is by coating it with a non-corrosive 
substance such as galvanizing, which is demanded by all ordinances 
on plumbing. Even when so protected, there will be thin places in 



264 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

the coating, and whenever the pipe is cut, the coating at the ends 
of the pipe is more or less damaged, so that the steel or wrought 
iron is left bare. At such points corrosion gets in its work. A scale 
is formed by this galvanic action, over the exposed surface, which in 
time exposes a fresh surface to be acted upon, the scale forming 
again, and again falling off. Thus the action continues until a hole 
has been eaten entirely through the pipe. The action of gases and 
acids in the sewage, and in the vapors and steam that rise from the 
sewage, tends to increase this corrosive action in a marked degree. 
Cast iron, however, is much more free from such corrosion, for it 
simply rusts over on any exposed surface, but does not scale, the rust 
actually forming a sort of protection for the piping. 

An important agent in the corrosion of wrought iron and steel 
is the condensation of vapors on the sides of the pipe in the form of 
drops of water, which quickly oxidize any exposed surface which 
they come in contact with. 

Mild steel is especially objectionable, as it is so filled with im- 
purities that it rapidly decays wherever they exist. 

The vent system is open to the injurious effects of corrosion to an 
even greater extent than the drainage system, for the latter is often 
covered with a slime which acts as a protection against such action. 

While the screw joint is the strong arguing point in favor of the 
Durham system, it is right at this point that the most serious trouble 
may be expected, both on the drainage and on the vent lines. Wher- 
ever a thread is cut, the material of the pipe is entirely exposed, and 
whenever threads project out from the joint, which often happens, 
there is not only abundant opportunity for corrosive action to take 
place, but there is a large surface to act upon, because of its being 
threaded, and owing to the depth of the thread there is less thick- 
ness of metal to be eaten through, before the pipe is punctured. In 
the case of mild steel, especially, it takes only a few years to accom- 
plish such a result under the above conditions. 

It is a very easy matter for most users to be imposed upon in 
deciding from the appearance of pipe, whether it is wrought iron or 
steel. A very large part of the pipe now turned out is of steel. 

The following shows some of the differences between iron and 
steel. Iron pipe looks rough and has a heavy scale, while the scale 
on steel pipe is much lighter and in the form of small bubbles, with 
a smooth and rather white surface beneath. 



DESTRUCTION OF PIPES BY ELECTROLYSIS 265 

Steel pipe, when spread out, seldom breaks, while iron pipe breaks 
easily. A break in the former shows a very fine grain, w^hile that 
of the latter is much coarser. 

Steel pipe is not hard and its threads tear rather than break. 
Dies that are used on steel pipe may also be used on wrought-iron 
pipe, but blunt dies that work satisfactorily on wrought-iron pipe will 
tear the softer threads of steel pipe. 

A few remarks concerning the length of life of wrought- and 
cast-iron pipes under actual working conditions, and the conditions 
which act to protect or destroy them, may be of interest. A case 
is on record of the complete decay of an entire underground wrought- 
iron gas-supply system in eleven years, the cause being in this case 
traced entirely to external conditions and not to the gas which the 
pipes were carrying. In the same town experience shows that 
wrought-iron water-service pipes have a life generally of about seven 
years. Cast-iron pipes have been known to fail through softening 
of the metal after a period of use underground of from thirty-five to 
fifty years. This action, however, is very rare, and the failure of 
cast-iron pipes, when laid underground, may generally be traced 
to defects in manufacture. 

A few years ago in the city of Los Angeles, the cast-iron water 
mains were uncovered in over three hundred places, and the pipes, 
which had been laid nearly thirty years previous, were found to be 
in almost perfect condition. 

It was found that the coating of asphalt had almost entirely dis- 
appeared, that in sandy soil the bare pipe had not rusted, and that 
in other moist soil it had rusted somewhat but was almost uninjured. 
In conclusion, it would seem advisable to use cast-iron pipe for drain- 
age purposes wherever possible, and that when impossible or im- 
practicable, nothing but wrought-iron pipe heavily galvanized should 
be used. Steel pipe should never be used. 



DESTRUCTION OF PIPES BY ELECTROLYSIS 

In recent years great damage has been done to all kinds of 
underground piping by the action of electric currents, chiefly from 
electric railway systems. This damaging action affects water mains 
and service pipes, gas mains and service pipes, the lead sheathing of 



266 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

underground telephone and telegraph lines, and in fact any line 
of underground piping, regardless of the nature of the metal of which 
it is made. In the action of the ordinary galvanic battery, such as 
is used for house bells, two metallic plates are used, one of these gen- 
erally being zinc, and the other some metal which will not oxidize 
so readily as zinc. 

When two such plates are immersed in a saline solution, and a 
circuit completed by connecting a wire from one plate to the other, 
it is a well-known fact that the more easily oxidized plate will be 
acted upon chemically and decomposed. It is for the reason that 
this chemical action in time destroys the zinc plate that battery zincs 
must be replaced in batteries at longer or shorter intervals. This 
destruction of a metal by means of the passage of an electric current, 
is known as electrolysis, and is an action which is constantly going 
on underground, in the vicinity of trolley tracks. 

It is the practice in the operation of most electric-railway systems 
to carry the electric current to the end of the line through large 
wires, and to carry it back to the dynamos through the rails. As 
the rails are not separated or insulated from the surrounding earth 
in any way, there is nothing to prevent a part of the current from 
escaping from the rail and passing into and through another near-by 
conductor. An electric current will always take the path that is 
easiest for it; that is, the path that has the least resistance. When- 
ever an electric current passes a point where it may take either of 
two or more paths, it will always divide, a part of it passing through 
each path that is open to it, and the path that presents the least amount 
of resistance to its passage will receive the largest part of the current. 
If the rails of the trolley system were welded together and therefore 
one continuous conductor, the action of electrolysis would be much 
less prevalent. As it is, however, the rails must be bonded, and at 
these joints the greatest resistance is to be met. Even though two 
rails might have their ends pressed together as closely as possible, 
there would still be at this joint a resistance to the passage of the 
current many times greater than the resistance it would meet at any 
intermediate points in the rail. Even when the rails are connected 
together by means of copper wire attached to the rails in the most 
approved manner, the resistance at the points of connection will be 
very great. It is at such points of resistance as these that the electric 
current will jump from the rail to some other conductor which offers 



DESTRUCTION OF PIPES BY ELECTROLYSIS 267 

less resistance, and this easier path for the current is often suppHed 
by a near-by Hne of underground piping. If the current would only 
continue in the pipe, and not leave it, the pipe would not be damaged, 
any more than the rail is damaged by having the current pass 
through it. 

It is at the points where the electric current jumps from the 
pipe to the rail again, or to some other conductor, that the damage 
comes, and also at fittings. The current in passing from the pipe, 
through the joint and into a fitting, does specially harmful work. It 
is not at the point where the current enters the pipe, or at interme- 
diate points along the pipe that the pipe is destroyed, but at those 
points where the current leaves it. This point is not generally 
understood. 

While all kinds of piping are subject to the action of electrolysis, 
and valves as well, cast iron is probably less harmfully acted upon 
than the other metals, although there are many instances where cast- 
iron water mains have been very seriously damaged. 

There are, however, several instances recorded, where serious 
damage was done to wrought-iron and lead pipes, while the cast-iron 
mains, which were apparently subject to the same conditions, were 
practically unharmed. An explanation of this result is not clear, 
although it has been suggested that in the casting of the iron pipes 
in sand moulds, a sort of silicious coating forms over the pipe, which 
acts as a protection to it. The plumber is naturally much interested 
in the methods that may be employed to prevent the action of elec- 
trolysis. It may truthfully be said that there is really no practicable 
remedy which may be applied at an expense which is not prohibitory. 
The owners of electric-railway systems may often considerably re- 
duce the cause of damage, but that is not the part of the question 
in which the plumber is interested. If the pipe that is affected can 
be surrounded by some suitable non-conductor, the trouble may be 
remedied, but it is a most difficult matter to provide a suitable non- 
conductor. Many materials that above ground might be used as 
non-conductors, cannot be used underground for the same purpose, 
as they absorb moisture and become conductors. The use of as- 
phaltum, resin, wax, and other substances has been tried, but they 
are not generally practicable, as a coating of such material is liable 
to crack and fall off, and in addition is too expensive to apply. In 
some cases, about the only thing that can be done is to provide for 



268 - MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

taking out sections of pipe, that are being constantly destroyed, in 
as easy a manner as possible. Sometimes it is well to encase the pipe 
in another pipe, in which case the current will often act on the outer 
pipe only. 

The action of electrolysis has caused the plumber an endless 
amount of annoyance in a great many instances, as one pipe after 
another has often been destroyed, and the cause many times being 
unknown, the plumber has been blamed for results that are prac- 
tically beyond his power to remedy. 

In addition, the gas and water and telephone and telegraph 
companies have suffered enormous losses. In the case of the gas 
and water companies, especially the former, the loss has not been 
entirely on the piping, but loss of great extent has occurred in the 
waste of gas or water carried in the pipes. 

The action of electrolysis is not confined alone in its destructive 
action to underground piping. The steel frames of large city build- 
ings, the steel framework of elevated railways, and much other 
construction work of a similar nature has also been very seriously 
impaired from the same cause. 

The great losses due to the action of electrolysis, and the danger 
attending the results of such action, have become of such importance 
that a very large amount of money has been offered by a leading 
scientific institution for a practicable remedy that will overcome its 
effects. 



Plate XLV 

CONSTRUCTION OF WORK WITHOUT 

USE OF LEAD 



Rlohz 45. 

C°ns/-ruct/°n <^f 

l/V^rh iAfi/-h^ul- Use <^f Lead 



■J^2^a<:5(^ 



Fl'^^r j^ 







j'2c:><^T' F'lorz^e 






J'J <=><:> Z^ 




H~^ 



f^ 



~v 



u-LK/ 



lY.C. 0<^nnec/-/^r?s 



K 



r^9 A 



-Qalv. JVr'i-. 



r'9- ^■ 



galv. 



F'9- ^■ 
1 






n'9- ^- 




T. n c=7 




Trajc> 







i. 




Cocs/ Jr <^2Q 



J 



1 



■f: 



- -nA vn r>\ /-n- 

ji II ii II 



Ca^/- Ir^iz --^ 




Qo2v: 



I I 






CONSTRUCTION OF WORK WITHOUT USE OF LEAD 

The present tendency of plumbing construction is toward the 
use of other metals than lead, cast and wrought iron, brass and 
copper being the materials commonly used; whereas in former times 
the entire drainage system was of lead, including the soil piping. 
This practice has reached such an extent that many plumbing ordi- 
nances restrict the use of lead to short branches of soil and waste 
pipes, closet bends and traps. 

Plate 45 shows several illustrations of this class of work. Figs. 
A and B showing work in connection with the Durham system, while 
the three remaining illustrations show brass and wrought-iron work 
in connection with main lines of cast-iron pipe. It is entirely feasible 
to construct the entire plumbing system without the use of any lead 
whatever, and numerous buildings ma)'' be found which are so pro- 
vided. Figs. A and B show two methods of installing water-closet 
connections without the use of lead. In the latter, the long-turn 
elbow takes the place of the lead bend. The connections in Fig. A 
are very satisfactory for water-closet work, giving a cjuick discharge 
of the waste into the main. Very often in connection with a line of 
water closets, the connections of Fig. A may be used without the 
vent, and the end of the horizontal main extended in the form of 
the circuit or loop vent. In such work the horizontal line may be 
brought considerably closer to the fixtures than in Fig. A. 

In Fig. C the lavatory is served by a brass trap and vented by 
a continuous vent. When such a fixture is located at a distance 
from a main line of vent, this method is very convenient, as the 
vent can be carried to the ceiling above, or under the floor, and hori- 
zontally to the desired point. 

Fig. D show^s the manner in which a fixture connected in the 

ordinary way may be installed without the use of lead. In Fig. E 

a group of urinals and lavatories is connected in a manner which 

is very satisfactory and now much used. The main horizontal waste 

line is generally run above the floor, and directly above it and above 

the highest fixture, the main horizontal vent is run. Back of each 

271 



272 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

fixture the main waste and vent lines are connected by a i^-in. 
vertical pipe, and into these vertical lines the fixture wastes are con- 
nected by a horizontal trap outlet, into a fitting of the T-Y pattern. 
This provides a continuous vent for each fixture, and effects a saving 
in cost of installation over the ordinary methods. 

The waste connections into the horizontal waste are ordinarily 
made through T-Y fittings, but it is preferable to use a Y branch 
and eighth bend, the waste passing off by this means more smoothly 
than through the T-Y fitting. In the use of wrought-iron pipe on 
the drainage system, the work may often be put in more compactly 
than with cast iron, owing to the fact that fittings and hubs take up 
less room. This will appear from Fig. A. In Figs. A and B the 
brass floor flange for the water closet is screwed into the cast-iron 
elbow. Fig. F, Plate 17, shows a detail of a water-closet connection 
when the soil pipe is of wrought-iron and no lead bend is used. All 
cast-iron fittings used in connection with wrought-iron drainage pipes 
should be recessed fittings, whether the entire system is of Durham 
construction or only branch wastes, as in Fig. C. 

When the Durham system is used, and it is desired to connect 
lead pipe into the wrought-iron pipe, it may be done by means of a 
brass soldering nipple or brass ferrule caulked or screwed into the 
wrought iron, as shown in connection with the water closets in the 
basement, in Plate 44. 

Brass ferrules should be of extra heavy cast brass, not less than 
4 in. in length and 2^4, 33^, and 4^ in. in diameter. 

The weights of brass ferrules should not be less than the fol- 
lowing : 

Diameter Weight 

2Yx in I lb. 

3>^ " iM lbs. 

4K " 2>4 " 

Soldering- nipples should be of brass pipe, iron-pipe size, or of 
extra-heavy cast brass. Cast-brass soldering nipples should not be 
less than the following in weight: 



Diamete 



ij^ in 8 oz 

2 



23^ 

3 

4 



Weight 



14 

1 lb. 6 oz. 

2 lbs. 

3 " 8 " 



CONSTRUCTION OF WORK 273 

On several of the foregoing plates, illustrations are shown of 
work constructed without the use of lead. For instance, on Plate 
43, Fig. D shows a line of porcelain urinals constructed in this 
manner. 

For urinal work, cast iron and brass are preferable to wrought- 
iron, steel, and lead pipe, for certain acids and gases in the urine 
which enters the connections of this fixture act destructively on the 
three last-named materials, and this action is often very rapid. 

There is a considerable amount of work installed in which the 
only lead used is the lead bend. The bath-room connections of Fig. 
E, Plate 21, are an example of this st3'le of work, in the use of spe- 
cial fittings. 

Fig. G, Plate 22, shows the same class of work performed by the 
use of common fittings. 

Figs. B and C of Plate 26, and the illustrations of Plates 27 and 
28, show plumbing construction provided with continuous vents, in 
which brass traps may be used, thus avoiding the use of lead. These 
illustrations show clearly that continuous vent work favors the use 
of other materials than lead. Plate 36 shows an entire plumbing 
system in which the only lead material used is the lead water-closet 
bends, and, if desired, other materials may be used in place of these. 

Fig. E, Plate 38, shows connections of wrought iron for a line 
of lavatories which give satisfaction and make a very neat appear- 
ance. Thus it will be seen that lead has but a small place in the 
construction of present-day plumbing in the larger cities, and on 
large work especially. 

The displacing of lead in plumbing construction by such mate- 
rials as cast and wrought iron and brass is attended by results both 
favorable and unfavorable, some of which. may be seen from the 
following. The great objection to the use of lead, as stated else- 
where, is that when run of considerable length it will sag and form 
traps, owing to the softness of the metal. This objection is cer- 
tainly not encountered in the use of wrought- and cast-iron and 
brass piping. 

There are many places where lead will give better service, how- 
ever, than material of a stiffer nature. For instance, lead will stand 
sudden strains and concussions better than cast- or wrought-iron or 
brass pipes. For this reason it is always advisable to use lead on 
the suction pipes of pumps, water lifts, etc. On such work as this, 



274 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

lead pipe does not develop the leaks that other materials do. In 
connection with the use of lead for suction pipes, it may be stated 
that in the event of a leak on the suction pipe it is far easier to 
locate it if the pipe is of lead than if of wrought iron. 

The reason for this is that the sound made by the passage of 
air through the leak telephones along the length of the wrought- 
iron pipe to a much greater extent than through lead pipe, the result 
being that it is difficult ofttimes to locate the exact place where the 
defect exists, while in lead pipe the noise can be heard only indis- 
tinctly at distant points. 

The objections to the employment of wrought iron and steel on 
the drainage and vent systems are considered thoroughly under the 
subject of the Durham system. 

It may be stated that while certain disadvantages exist in con- 
nection with the use of lead, wrought-iron, and steel pipes for drain- 
age and vent purposes, there is almost nothing that can be said 
against the use of cast iron and brass for the same purposes. 



Plate XLVI 

THE DISPOSAL OF SEWAGE OF FIXTURES 
LOCATED BELOW SEWER LEVEL— AU- 
TOMATIC SEWAGE LIFTS— AUTO- 
MATIC SUMP TANKS 



R/af-e 46. 

A uf- <=>/77 o^ic SeiA/age 

Iislef 




w- 



J5555 



ZZZ^ZZ? 



Vc^Iv^e, 



CJzecIt 



TZZZZZZZZZA 



(^ejvacpe 




Lif/- 



!■ ^e^/ ^^^'^ 




xss ?,syvjA - \ :^^?^ T 



z? 



ssggss 



^ 



^eceiy<ir 






^^fe 




Faille 



F^^nr-:^ C2z e cJt 



A u/" 0/77 aZ-Zc 

sSump Tan/i 




^I^2^l 



' VeTZ^ Jiir 




THE DISPOSAL OF SEWAGE OF FIXTURES LOCATED 
BELOW SEWER LEVEL— AUTOMATIC SEWAGE LIFTS 
—AUTOMATIC SUMP TANKS 

In the larger cities there are many instances where plumbing- 
fixtures are located below the level of the street sewer, in which case 
it is obviously impossible to discharge the waste coming from them, 
into the sewer by gravity. Such conditions must be dealt with in 
the sub-basement floors of numerous tall city buildings, underground 
toilet rooms or public-comfort stations, and in underground or sub- 
way passenger stations. 

Briefly stated, the method of handling such sewage is to convey 
it by gravity through the ordinary soil and waste lines into a receiv- 
ing tank, from which it is pumped or ejected by other means, into 
the house sewer of the gravity system. 

In addition to fixture drainage, the matter of subsoil drainage, 
which is often a very considerable matter in underground work, must 
be taken care of. 

There are several methods of raising the low-level sewage into 
the gravity house drain. 

It may be done by pumps of difl^erent kinds, or by means of 
automatic sewage lifts, several of which are now on the market, and 
operated by compressed air or steam. 

A sectional view of such a sewage lift or ejector is to be seen 
in Plate 46. 

When pumps are to be used, the low-level sewage is discharged 
into a receiving tank located below the level of the lowest fixtures, 
each soil or waste inlet to the tank being trapped, and the trap sup- 
plied with a vent, which may be connected into an}^ main vent of the 
gravity system. 

A tank of this kind should be large enough to hold the sewage 
collecting during several hours, if the discharge from it is automatic, 
and if not, it should be large enough to hold the sewage entering it 
during twenty-four hours. 

As nearly above the tank as possible, a centrifugal pump is set, 

which is operated by an electric motor. A float inside the tank is 

arranged to rise with the sewage in the tank, and when it has filled 

277 



278 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

to a certain point, the rising of the float locks an electric switch 
which controls the motor. The motor is thus set in action, operat- 
ing the pump, and the latter quickly draws out the contents of the 
tank and forces them into the house sewer of the gravity system. 
The suction of the pump should reach down to the bottom of the 
tank in order to draw out all the heavy matter. To the tank a fresh- 
air inlet should be connected, not only to serve the ordinary pur- 
pose of the fresh-air inlet, but to relieve the tank while it is filling 
and to aid the pump by admitting air when the latter is in action. 
The pump may also be set on the same level as the tank, and, in fact, 
works to better advantage when so set, as no primer is necessary, 
and the apparatus is thereby considerably simplified. Piston pumps 
are also used in raising sewage from low levels. 

The centrifugal form of pump is best adapted to large volumes 
of sewage which are not to be raised very high, while piston pumps 
will raise smaller amounts through much greater distances. 

In the use of piston pumps, however, it is necessary to prevent 
anything but clear sewage from entering, as the coarser and gritty 
matter works destructively on the working parts of the pump. 

The great objection to the use of pumps in disposing of low- 
level sewage is the cost of operating. 

The use of automatic sewage ejectors, however, is accompanied 
with small running expenses, and they have many advantages over 
the use of pumps, chief among which is the fact that there are almost 
no working parts to get out of order, and very few auxiliary devices, 
which are expensive to operate, as in the case of electric motors used 
on pumps. 

In Plate 46 is shown such an apparatus, operating automatically, 
and designed especially for this kind of work. 

There are several other makes that may be obtained, all work- 
ing on more or less similar principles. Compressed air has proved 
the most satisfactory motive power, but very often these machines 
are provided with appliances by means of which steam or water may 
be used to operate them in the event of an interruption in the com- 
pressed-air apparatus. 

The action of the automatic sewage lift is the following: Sew- 
age from the levels below the crown of the sewer is conducted, 
through various lines of soil and waste pipe, into a sewage tank or 
receiver. 



DISPOSAL OF SEWAGE 279 

Inside the receiver an open bucket rests upon the surface of 
the sewage, rising as the latter rises. When it has risen to a cer- 
tain point, the rod to which it is connected, and which passes through 
a stuffing box at the top of the tank, by means of a lever attachment 
trips a valve on the compressed-air supply pipe, the same action clos- 
ing a valve on the vent pipe of the apparatus. Compressed air is at 
once admitted upon the surface of the sewage in the receiver, and is 
sufficient in pressure to raise this sewage through the outlet and into 
the house sewer of the gravity system. 

A pressure of 2 pounds should be provided for each foot in height 
through which the sewage is to be raised. 

When the pressure of the compressed air is exerted on the sew- 
age, it closes the check valve on the inlet to the receiver, and opens 
the check valve on the outlet, and as the closing of the vent pipe 
closes the only other path for the sewage, it must pass out through 
the proper outlet. 

As the water in the receiver falls, the bucket, which is weighted 
with the water which it holds, follows with it, and when it reaches 
a point near the bottom, the lever attachment shuts the valve which 
controls the compressed-air supply, and opens the vent valve, thus 
venting the air confined in the receiver. The ejector is now ready 
for another operation. It will be seen that the ejector acts as a trap, 
and therefore the use of a main trap is unnecessary in connection 
with it. 

The receiver of the ejector should be vented, such vent usually 
being connected into some convenient main vent on the gravity- 
drainage system. Air compressors and a storage tank for com- 
pressed air are necessary features of a plant of this kind. 

The valves on the inlet and outlet pipes of the ejector are for 
use in the event that it is desired to disconnect any one of several 
sewage lifts that are connected together on the same system. The 
automatic sewage lift is generally installed in a brick or iron well 
and made accessible in case of inspection and repairs. In handling 
the low-level sewage of some of the immense hotels of the large 
cities, apparatus must be used which is able to discharge many thou- 
sands of gallons of sewage each hour. 

This may be accomplished by means of ejectors of the type shown 
in Plate 46, by connecting several of the lifts together. 

When so connected, combination lifts working under either com- 



28o MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

pressed air or steam are generally used, in order that in the event 
of a breakdown on one source of motive power, the other may at 
once be made use of. It will readily be seen that no chances can be 
taken in providing against a mishap which may totally disable an 
entire system of this kind, for it is a question of handling a great 
many thousands of gallons each hour, and when this cannot be done, 
and the sewage constantly accumulates at this high rate, the situa- 
tion becomes very serious. 

When several ejectors are connected together, the main sewage 
inlet divides the sewage between the different ejectors, and each one 
discharges into a main. 

Some of the advantages of this method of disposal are the fol- 
lowing: No pumping apparatus, with working parts to get out of 
repair, is necessary; there are practically no working parts in the 
lift to get out of order; the receiving tank, in which the work of the 
apparatus is chiefly performed, has no finished surfaces or parts on 
which the coarser matter in the sewage may act injuriously; and the 
tank acts as a trap to protect the building against the entrance of 
gases from the sewer. 

In addition to the matter of caring for fixture drainage, sub- 
soil drainage, floor drainage, etc., must also be provided for. This 
drainage is usually disposed of by other apparatus than that used in 
connection with polluted drainage, the apparatus being known as the 
automatic sump tank, an illustration of which appears in Plate 46. 
This tank is installed in a water-tight catch basin or pit, constructed 
of brick or iron. Subsoil, floor drainage, and any other clear-water 
drainage that must be taken care of, should enter the pit through 
inlets provided with check valves, as shown, all drains being trapped 
in the usual manner. The tank should be air-tight and vented, gen- 
erally into some convenient main vent in the gravity system. The 
action of the automatic sump tank is similar to that of the automatic 
sewage lift already described. 

When the bucket is raised by the drainage in the tank to the 
right height, it opens the compressed-air supply valve and closes the 
vent pipe, the admission of compressed air forcing the contents out 
of the tank and into the main gravity line. 

A wise provision in the installation of automatic sewage lifts on 
large work, is that they shall be provided in pairs, each being large 
enough to hold the drainage accumulating from the fixtures during 



DISPOSAL OF SEWAGE 281 

an hour. The two ejectors should be so connected that they will 
operate alternately. When water closets discharge into sewage 
ejectors, the vent from the apparatus should not be less than 4 in. 
in diameter, and when other fixtures only are connected into it, the 
vent should be of the same size as the main waste pipe serving such 
fixtures. 

There is another form of ejector sometimes used, which dis- 
charges low-level sewage into the house sewer of the regular sys- 
tem, also by means of compressed air. 

The compression of the air in this apparatus, however, is accom- 
plished by the head of the sewage in the gravity system discharged 
into a large tank. Water from the public water supply may also 
operate this system, and this water afterward be used in supplying 
fixtures on the floors below the sewer level. This system, while not 
particularly well known, has the advantage of disposing of the sew- 
age without apparatus which entails expense in installing and in 
operating. 

Of the several different methods mentioned or described for 
raising low-level sewage, the automatic sewage lift, operating by 
compressed air, with steam as an auxiliary, is, in general, the most 
desirable. 

In order to determine the size of lift needed for any given plant, 
the amount of waste entering it must be known, and to estimate this 
it is necessary to know the number and character of all plumbing 
fixtures below the sewer level, the number of floor drains, and the 
character and size of all other drains and apparatus from which 
waste of any description is discharged. 

It is also necessary to know the size of the gravity house sewer, 
and the kind of power that is to operate the lift, with full data con- 
cerning pressure, etc., relating to such motive power. 

In addition to its use in connection with underground floors of 
high buildings and underground public toilet rooms, there are sev- 
eral other uses to which the automatic sewage lift may be put. 

It often happens that small villages or hamlets, situated in level 
country, which has no advantages for disposing of public sewage by 
gravity, are in a perplexing situation. The sewage lift may be used 
to advantage under such conditions. 

By installing it in a pit underground, as low as desired, enough 
pitch can be obtained to allow the discharge of the public sewer into 



282 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

it. The lift may discharge the sewage into a septic tank at a higher 
level, and this tank in turn onto filter beds, the latter delivering the 
clear sewage which results, into underground distributing pipes. 
More concerning the septic tank, filter beds, and underground dis- 
tribution will be found under following plates. 

If other sources of motive power are not available, the lift may 
be operated by water. 

The sewage lift is used in many marine plumbing systems also. 
The apparatus is located below all fixtures, which discharge into it 
by gravity, the lift discharging the sewage into the sea. 

This is an important application, as the disposal of sewage of 
large steamships, as well as other vessels, is a matter of importance 
and difficulty. 



Plate XLVII 

COUNTRY PLUMBING— WATER SUPPLY 



C°un/-ry R/umbing 




COUNTRY PLUMBING 

The subject of country plumbing differs in many respects from 
the plumbing of cities and towns. The difference arises principally 
because of the fact that usually the plumbing system installed in the 
country cannot enter a system of public sewers, and a water supply 
cannot be secured from any public system of supply. These condi- 
tions make it necessary to study each individual plumbing system, 
and to provide for it as conditions require. 

Another feature that also influences the installation of the plumb- 
ing system, is the absence of any regulation or inspection of plumbing 
work. As a consequence, many houses in the countr)^ of ordinary 
style, are provided with an unvented plumbing system. This, how- 
ever, in many cases need not be a serious matter, as on small systems 
special provision may often be made for making the work as safe as 
is possible to make it when the traps are not vented. 

Plate 47 shows such a plumbing system. 

In many cases one stack serves all plumbing fixtures of the 
house, including usually the three bath-room fixtures, kitchen sink, 
and, possibly, laundry tubs. The use of S-traps on such work is poor 
practice, as this form of trap is easily siphoned, unless provided with 
a vent. The use of drum traps and approved forms of non-siphonable 
traps is much better practice. As far as possible, long, horizontal 
runs of lead waste pipe should be avoided in an unvented plumbing 
system, as siphonage often results from the backing up of waste in 
these long runs. The connections from bath-room fixtures into the 
stack can usually be arranged as shown in Plate 47, with the lavatory 
waste entering above the water-closet connection. If the lavatory 
connection is below the closet connection, the liability of siphonage 
of the lavatory trap will be greater, owing to the passage of a 
heavy volume of waste from the water closet past the lavatory waste 
opening. 

The passage of the stack through the roof is a great safeguard 

for any system of plumbing, especially in the case of an unvented 

system. When the country plumbing system empties ipto a cesspool 

or septic tank, a vent should be run from such receptacle. The septic 

285 



286 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

tank or cesspool, stands in the same relation to the country plumbing 
system that the public sewer system does to the city plumbing system. 

If the cesspool or sewer is not vented, gases will generate and 
produce a pressure that will force the seal of the main trap. 

The soil vent or roof connection relieves this pressure, which is 
a duty of much importance, for if not thus relieved, the fixture traps 
will also be forced, and poisonous gases from the cesspool thus find 
entrance into the house. The use or non-use of the main trap does 
not appear to be a matter of so much importance in connection with 
the country plumbing system as with the city system. One reason 
for this is that in the country districts there is no danger of con- 
taminating the surrounding air by venting the cesspool, whereas in 
the city the venting of the sewer through the soil vents of a build- 
ing only a few stories in height may throw foul odors and gases into 
the windows of a high building next to it. 

There is one reason why the main trap is of much value to many 
country systems. There being no regulation by ordinance, or inspec- 
tion of plumbing, much poor work is installed that remains undiscov- 
ered, which a test would quickly reveal ; and, moreover, standard soil 
pipe is generally used, which is easily split in handling, and which has 
more defects than extra-heavy pipe. Consequently, sewer gas would 
have a much greater opportunity to find its way through defective 
pipe and joints than in work of a higher grade, and the main trap 
will prevent much of this trouble, by preventing the entrance into the 
plumbing system of the house, of gases from the cesspool. 

The subjects of cesspools, sewage siphons, septic tanks, etc., are 
considered more thoroughly under the two plates following. 

WATER SUPPLY 

The manner in which the water supply for the country house 
shall be procured is always a matter of importance, and usually 
depends largely upon the natural facilities that exist. The methods 
commonly in use, are pumping by hand from wells or by power — such 
as windmill or pumping engine — supply by gravity, by siphonage, or 
by the use of a ram. In the use of a gravity supply, the source of 
supply must be at a higher elevation than the point of delivery. The 
siphon is used in procuring water from a higher point than the point 
of delivery, when a hill or other obstruction intervenes between the 



WATER SUPPLY 287 

two points, and over which the supply Hne must be carried. The ram 
can be used only when the source of supply is lower than the point 
of delivery, and when the supply is so located that the ram may be 
placed at a point below it. Thus it will be seen that in procuring a 
water supply, local conditions must usually govern the matter. In 
order to provide a head which shall deliver the water at the several 
points where it is to be used, an attic storage tank is generally used. 
A tank of 300 to 500 gallons will be found to be large enough for 
the ordinary country home. The tank when filled, represents an 
immense weight, and care must be taken in giving- it a proper sup- 
port. This is easily done in installing a tank in a house in course 
of construction, but is often a difficult matter in an old house. The 
tank should be located where it will not freeze, near a chimney often 
being a good location. The top of the tank should be covered, in 
order that dust and dirt and odors may not reach the water, and a 
ventilating pipe should also be provided. 

The tank may be filled in many ways — by hand or power pump, 
windmill, pumping engine, or ram. Plate 47 shows the discharge 
pipe from the pump delivering to the tank over the top, the supply 
pipe to fixtures being taken out of the bottom. Another very good 
method is to connect the pump pipe into the bottom of the tank and 
use this same pipe as the down supply to the fixtures. 

This will save the necessity of running a separate supply pipe 
to the fixtures, and answers the purpose as well. 

If a hand force pump is used, as shown in Plate 47, a faucet 
on the pump may be used to advantage. Drinking water may be 
pumped direct from the well through the faucet, and when this is 
closed it may be pumped into the tank. 

A tell-tale should always be provided, which should end, if pos- 
sible, at the point where the pump is located, in order that the per- 
son operating the pump may know by the escape of water, when the 
tank has been sufficiently filled. The tell-tale may enter the side of 
the tank, as shown, or pass through the bottom into a standing 
overflow. 

The attic tank should have an overflow either of 1}^- or i^-in. 
pipe, which, if possible, should empty onto a roof. It may be carried 
into a fixture on a floor below. It is often convenient to discharge 
the overflow into the water-closet flush tank. 

When the attic tank is used, the hot-water supply for the house 



288 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

is under tank pressure, and in order to provide for expansion, an 
expansion pipe should be taken from the highest point of the hot- 
water system and carried over the top of the tank, into which any 
expansion may vent itself. 

Under the tank a safe or drip pan should be placed, to take care 
of any leakage from the tank. From the safe a drip should be run 
into some open fixture in common use, in order that, by the escape 
of leakage through the pipe, warning of trouble may be given as 
quickly as possible. Sheet lead is generally used for drip pans or 
safes, while sheet copper is now mostly used for tank linings. When 
the attic tank is filled from a pump or ram, the ball cock and valve 
are not used, but when a supply by gravity is used, the ball cock and 
valve are necessary in order to regulate the flow of water as it is 
needed. 

A great objection to many well waters is their excessive hard- 
ness, which make them objectionable for kitchen and laundry pur- 
poses. When the natural supply is of this nature, the rain water 
falling on the roof of the house is collected and used for these pur- 
poses entirely, or as far as possible. 

Rain water may be discharged directly from the roof into the 
attic tank, as shown in Plate 47, the objection to this course being 
that a large part of the water must be lost through the overflow, 
and in the event of the stoppage of the overflow during a heavy 
storm, the house would be in danger of being flooded. Instead of 
discharging the overflow upon the roof, it may be carried into a 
cistern, and all the water needed, thus saved. If desirable, the rain 
water may not be connected directly into the attic tank, but may be 
discharged into the cistern. 

In either case of using the cistern, a pump must be used to force 
the water into the attic tank. When the rain water is thus utilized, 
wholly or in part, the pump connection with the well may be allowed 
to remain as shown in Plate 47, to be used whenever the cistern 
water gives out, and for providing through the pump faucet, a sup- 
ply of drinking water. 

In the use of the faucet, there will often be sufficient storage of 
water in the pipe between the pump and the tank, without having 
to pump. 

It is best to use a cistern capable of holding a month's supply 
of rain water, in order that when a rainy period comes, enough water 



WATER SUPPLY 289 

may be stored to last until it will probably be renewed. When entire 
dependence is made upon rain water, storage should be provided for 
a period of six weeks, if possible, at the rate of about twenty-five 
gallons per day for each inmate of the house. To some this rate of 
water use may seem excessive, but it is low rather than high, as 
extended experience shows. 

When the water supply must be economized, a much lower 
amount may be figured on, but when plumbing fixtures, such as 
water closets, are constantly in use, the rate increases rapidly. 

If possible, rain water should be screened before entering the 
attic tank, as leaves, twigs, slate, etc., enter the cistern in consider- 
able quantity. Filters are sometimes used for clearing the water, 
and screens of various kinds are employed. Devices known as rain- 
water separators may also be procured, which prevent the first wash- 
ings of a rain storm from entering the tank or cistern. 

Well water is no doubt used to a far greater extent in the coun- 
try than any other source of supply. W^hether it is a well or spring 
or other source of supply, the greatest care should be taken in pro- 
viding against its contamination in any way. It is popularly con- 
sidered that the country is free from all manner of impure condi- 
tions, but it is true, nevertheless, that in the past, the death rate in 
country districts, where, apparently, living conditions are perfect, 
has been as great or greater from such diseases as typhoid fever 
than in cities. 

Generally a case of this dreaded disease in the country, may be 
traced to a contaminated well or other supply. For this reason every 
precaution should be taken. 

The well should never be located near a leeching cesspool, it 
being well to have at least 300 ft. separate them. A tight cesspool 
should not be located within 30 ft. of any well or other source of 
supply. 

In running a line of earthenware drain pipe, it should be kept 
as far away from any source of water supply as possible. 

Whenever possible, a cesspool or drain-pipe line should be lo- 
cated at a lower elevation than the well, in order that the natural 
drainage may carry any leakage away from, rather than toward, 

the well. 

The location and common use of wells within a few feet of 
privies, is a practice which may be seen in almost any country dis- 



290 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

trict, and is a practice which has been the direct cause of a large 
part of the typhoid-fever cases in the country. 

It is claimed that contaminated water in running through a com- 
paratively few feet of soil, will purify itself, and on the strength of 
this claim, many are willing to take chances in the use of drinking 
water coming from exposed sources. 

While this fact may be true under certain circumstances, it has 
little in it to cause a lessening of precautionary measures, as the con- 
taminating source is usually a permanent one, and the action of 
purification by filtration is not to be depended upon at a depth of 
more than three or four feet, as the admission of air, upon which 
the action depends, is not sufficient at greater depths. 

Wells are of three kinds, those which are dug, driven wells, and 
bored wells. 

The first named is the most common, and the driven well next. 

Even the driven or bored well is by no means proof against 
contamination, as impurities may enter the water at considerable 
distances from the well. 

Many waters of sparkling appearance, and apparently abso- 
lutely pure, are very far from being what they appear, and too much 
attention cannot be given to the matter of precaution in securing a 
supply for country use which is absolutely pure, and then seeing to 
it that it is not contaminated later. 



Plate XLVIII 

CONSTRUCTION AND USE OF CESSPOOLS 



R/a/-e 48. 



C^nshruc/'i^n 



°f Cessp°<=>/s 



L.e,(Zch/nQ 

F'resJs Air Iislef 




ei] 



Y^~y- 



--//--// vV/Oj:»^^.-<.v\y/ 



Ji>r2Clt 



T 










Cess/D^<=>/ 






] ,^ve.2Yl<^nr 






^:^^^2^ 




V X 



*> ~« 



C^rr?Jb/na/-/^n ^ - " ^ "^ « 
Leech /ng $g 77^/?/- Cesssp^<=>/ 






V/'/'>/'/'y/'/77 






\ 






:^ 



B^' 












^oe77?e/s/ 



^^^Lz/Je/^ 











V ? 



A 



CONSTRUCTION AND USE OF CESSPOOLS 

The cesspool is made use of only in the absence of public 
sewers. Whenever entrance may be made into a public sewer, the 
use of the cesspool should be discontinued entirely. After public 
sewers have been constructed, cesspools are sometimes connected 
into the sewer instead of replacing them entirely, with a direct con- 
nection from house to sewer. This is extremely poor practice, for 
the cesspool should always be considered simply as a makeshift, made 
necessary by the absence of better facilities. The worst feature that 
presents itself in country plumbing, is the disposal of the soil in 
house sewage. 

When, as occasionally happens, the sewage of a house may be dis- 
charged into a running stream, the difficulty may be solved in the case 
of that particular house, although for all points lower down on such a 
stream, the water is polluted and should not be used for drinking pur- 
poses. Therefore this method is usually out of the question, even 
though such a stream is at hand. The only other practical method is 
to discharge the house sewage into a tank, from which the liquids may 
escape into the surrounding soil, the tank retaining the solid matter, 
including soil. Such a tank or compartment is called a cesspool. 
In Plate 48 are shown two forms of cesspool, the leeching and com- 
bination leeching and tight cesspools. The former is by far the more 
common type. The leeching cesspool is built of loose brick or stone, 
without the use of cement. Through the crevices or joints in the 
sides of the cesspool, the liquids leech out into the surrounding soil, 
leaving the solid matter to remain in the cesspool. A serious objec- 
tion to the use of this form of cesspool is that, after a time, the 
crevices become filled with soil and other solid matter, and the leech- 
ing process is interfered with. Another objection is that more or 
less solid matter passes off with the liquid into the surrounding soil, 
thereby in time destroying it as a filtering medium, upon the effect- 
iveness of which, the proper action of the cesspool depends. To be 
sure, when these results have come about, the liquids entering the 
cesspool may be carried into a second cesspool through an overflow, 

293 



294 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

in which case the first cesspool will continue to retain the solid part 
of the sewage, and the second cesspool to dispose of the liquids, some- 
what in the manner of the septic tank. 

When the first cesspool has become filled it may be emptied, 
and its use continued. Instead of discharging into one cesspool and 
overflowing into a second one, it may be more desirable, when the 
first cesspool is no longer able to perform its duties satisfactorily, 
to abandon it, disconnect the house drain from it and reconnect into 
a cesspool located in new soil. 

The only proper location for a leeching cesspool is in light or 
sandy soil, into which the liquids may leech and purify themselves 
by filtration. Sand is a recognized filtering medium. Filtration 
depends upon the action of certain bacteria which exist in the soil, 
their numbers being far greater in light soils than in those which 
are heavier, as in the former, air has an opportunity to reach the 
bacteria, without which the bacteria are unable to live. 

Therefore, at considerable depths, the action of filtration is not 
nearly so strong as at points nearer the surface, and for this reason, 
cesspools of comparatively small depth will give better service. 

While the employment of the leeching cesspool in the manner 
described above is the common method, a better method is to dis- 
charge the house drainage into a tight cesspool and connect it by 
overflow into a second cesspool of the leeching type, the first retain- 
ing the solids, which may be cleaned out, and the second cesspool 
leeching the liquids into the surrounding soil. The water-tight cess- 
pool should ordinarily be about six feet in diameter by ten feet in 
depth, and is usually built of brick, one brick thick, laid in Portland 
concrete, and provided with a 24-in. cast-iron cover and frame. A 
tight cesspool should not be located within two feet of any boundary 
line, or within ten feet of any house or rain-water cistern, or within 
thirty feet of any source of water supply. A leeching cesspool should 
not be located within 100 feet of any house or cistern, or within 300 
feet of any source of water supply. 

The house sewer should be trapped before entering a cesspool, 
and the trap provided with a 4-in. fresh-air inlet, which should be 
governed by the regular limitations surrounding the construction 
of fresh-air inlets. The cesspool, whether leeching or water-tight, 
should be vented by a 4-in. vent pipe, carried at least 10 ft. into the 
air. A convenient method is to carry this vent line on a stout pole 



CONSTRUCTION OF CESSPOOLS 295 

or post, set for the purpose. The ground above the cesspool should 
be banked with turf, in order to shed surface water and prevent its 
entrance into the cesspool. 

Rain water should not be discharged into a house sewer .con- 
necting with a cesspool, as the latter will be flooded and called upon 
to take care of drainage which is not harmful to discharge upon the 
surface of the ground if properly provided for. It will be seen that 
the leeching and water-tight cesspool each has its own particular 
advantages, which, in the main, are not held in common. 

A most excellent form of cesspool, combining the features of 
these two types, is the combination leeching and tight cesspool shown 
in Plate 48, the construction and action of which are as follows: 

An excavation of proper size having been made, a heavy layer 
of broken stone is filled into the bottom, and upon this as a founda- 
tion a common brick, water-tight cesspool is built, a wide space being 
left between it and the sides of the excavation, which space is filled 
with broken stone. Overflow outlets at several points around the 
cesspool, and exactly on the same level, are then constructed, which 
will allow liquids to pass over into the broken stone and leech into 
the soil, the heavy matter remaining in the water-tight cesspool, 
from which it may be removed at intervals. This form of cesspool 
takes up but little more room than an ordinary cesspool, is as efficient 
as the use of the tight cesspool overflowing into a leeching cesspool, 
and is in every way a very satisfactory arrangement for handling 
the drainage of a country house. The outlets should be on the same 
level, in order that the liquid may be distributed evenly into the 
broken stone. 

If these outlets are not placed on the same level, the lower ones 
will get nearly all the waste from the cesspool, and that part of the 
filtering material into which they discharge will after a time become 
filled with impurities, and thus be unfit to perform the duties required 
of it; whereas, if each outlet is made to take care of its proportional 
part of the work, the cesspool can be made to do good work for a 
much longer period. 

Notwithstanding that the main part of the solid matter remains 
in this cesspool, a small part at least of the solids is carried out into 
the broken stone. Instead of outlets of the style shown in Plate 48, 
very good outlets may be obtained by using half-S lead traps in an 
inverted position. 



296 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

The sewage should be brought into the cesspool in such a way 
that its contents will not be stirred up any more than possible. 

If the contents are disturbed, a greater amount of solid matter 
will be carried out through the overflows. By carrying the inlet 
pipe well down into the cesspool, the sewage will enter with less 
commotion than otherwise. 

While there is a great difference between the efficiencies of the 
several types of cesspools, it should always be remembered that this 
device at best is only made use of as the most practicable method of 
solving a difficult problem, at the least possible expense. In other 
words, the cesspool should be considered only as a necessary evil, to 
be used only when other methods cannot be employed. 

City plumbing ordinances make acknowledgment of this fact by 
prohibiting the use of cesspools in all sections of the city that are 
provided with public sewage facilities. A very great improvement 
over the cesspools, as shown in Plate 48, is to be found in the sep- 
tic tank. 

This subject is one of very great importance, and is taken up 
under the following plate. 



Plate XLIX 

CONSTRUCTION AND ACTION OF THE 
SEPTIC TANK— UNDERGROUND DIS- 
POSAL OF PARTIALLY PURIFIED 
SEWAGE— AUTOMATIC SEW- 
AGE SIPHONS 



P/a/-e -^9. 



Sep/-/c Tonh ^ 
Ac//-°/77(7/-/c Se*vage S/p/y^n 



77S ays 7t<=tle C<=>p^^2'<^ 



^1 l.\''.i"±ul^ 



ClE r^/g/ 



(ove2--^J<^yr 



I 



I 



^^^ziz-lz ^^^^S ^^ CJzojTz^r 






jQ)i'Schoroe 



CTzojizhcr 



X. 






'I<^?r 



^^/|->/."//! 



I I I I I7> 







Je)e ^jc> '<Se o2 (S^rap — ^ 






j±h 







FTF 



% = 



s 



^ 






'-^^i^^y^ 



^ 






aatj 



A/57. 23. 



"i H 



II II 



^ 



s 



"^ ^ r 



' > 



s 






CONSTRUCTION, AND ACTION OF THE SEPTIC TANK 

As stated under the preceding plate, the use of the cesspool is 
a practice to be followed only as a last resort, when no better method 
can be employed. At best, however, the cesspool is a crude, filthy 
affair, although in times past it has served an important purpose. 
The use of the septic tank is to-day leading to the disuse of cess- 
pools, and it seems to be only a matter of time when the latter will 
be largely a thing of the past. 

One form of septic tank is shown in Fig. A, Plate 49. The 
house sewage is discharged into the first of the three compartments 
of the septic tank, this compartment being commonly known as the 
grit chamber, and in which the most important action of the tank 
takes place. From the grit chamber the liquid portion of the sewage 
overflows into the second, or settling chamber, and from this into 
the third or discharge, chamber, from which the effluent may be dis- 
posed of in a number of different ways, which will be considered later. 

All three compartments of the septic tank are necessarily water- 
tight, the leeching process not being employed in connection with the 
septic tank. The action of the septic tank does not result in sepa- 
rating the solids from the liquids by mechanical means, the action 
being entirely of a chemical nature. The reduction of sewage by 
means of the septic tank is by the action of certain bacteria which 
live and multiply in all fresh sewage. By means of this bacterial 
action, all forms of organic and vegetable matter are transformed 
from solids into liquids known as nitrates. Ordinarily this action 
effects the change from solid to liquid within a few hours. Even 
substances of such hard nature as bones, leather, etc., may be thus 
changed in form, although the time required is very much greater 
than in the case of substances of softer nature. 

The septic tank is made generally of sufficient size to hold about 
a day's accumulation of sewage. The action of the class of bacteria 
which act upon sewage requires neither light nor air; in fact, both 
light and air should not be allowed to enter the septic tank. A cer- 
tain amount of warmth must be maintained in order to provide for 

299 



300 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

the proper action of the bacteria, although no special arrangement 
to provide heat is necessary. There is considerable heat present in 
all house sewage, and the sinking of the tank underground provides 
an additional amount, as also the action of the bacteria itself. To 
secure the best results, the sewage which enters the septic tank should 
be well diluted. 

The presence of a supply of air in the septic tank not only stops 
the action of the bacteria, but allows the contents to putrefy, as in 
the use of the cesspool. Without the presence of air, obnoxious gases 
do not form, and therefore, even when opened for a short time, the 
septic tank does not throw off foul odors and gases in any amount. 

In starting a septic tank there is nothing to be done of a special 
nature, after the plant has been made ready, beyond the admission 
of sewage to it. For the tank to reach a high state of efficiency, 
however, requires a sufficient length of time to elapse for the bac- 
teria to breed and form in sufficient numbers. This period varies 
with conditions that are present, from one to three weeks. On the 
surface of the sewage standing in the tank, a thick coating or scum 
of vegetable and animal matter soon forms, in which the bacteria 
breed and perform their work of disintegration. 

Upon the under side of this scum their action is particularly 
strong, the solids being transformed within the space of a few hours 
into liquids, which are in the form of ammonia compounds. 

The scum on the surface of the sewage varies greatly in thick- 
ness, but is sometimes of such an amount and so compact that the 
weight of a person can be sustained upon it. The bacteria also form 
upon the sides of the tank, thus attacking the sewage from every 
direction. 

The numbers of these bacteria are so great as to be inconceiv- 
able, millions of them being present in a very small volume of the 
sewage. 

In order that the best results may be obtained, the bacteria should 
be disturbed as little as possible. They adhere to almost any rough 
substance, but upon glass and similar surfaces they do not seem to 
be able to gain a hold. Great care should be taken against break- 
ing or disturbing the scum in any way. Therefore, the inlet, as it 
enters the grit chamber, should discharge through a bend to a point 
well below the surface of the sewage, as shown in Fig. A. 

Metallic and other substances upon which the bacteria are unable 



THE SEPTIC TANK 301 

to act, settle to the bottom of the grit chamber, which should be 
cleaned out occasionally, and for this purpose each chamber of the 
septic tank should be provided with a 24-in. iron cover, fitting tightly 
into an iron frame securely embedded in the masonry. 

From the grit chamber the liquids collecting in that compartment 
overflow into the settling chamber. This overflow should be so con- 
structed as to transfer the liquids with the slightest possible disturb- 
ance of the contents of the settling chamber. The method of over- 
flow shown in Fig. A is a good one to follow, as it allows the liquid 
to trickle over as it collects. The process of disintegration is con- 
tinued in the settling chamber, although to a much less extent than 
in the grit chamber, for the reason that the sewage has been so far 
purified in the latter that there is not the substance present in the 
settling chamber to give life to the countless numbers of bacteria that 
exist in the settling chamber. In many plants, a third chamber is 
added, into which the effluent overflows before reaching the discharg- 
ing chamber, the septic action being less in each successive chamber, 
owing to the increasing purity of the liquids. 

From the last settling chamber the effluent overflows into a dis- 
charge chamber usually, although in some cases it is discharged 
directly from the settling chamber to the final place of disposal. 

A great factor in the successful operation of the septic tank is 
the formation of the scum on the surface of the sewage. This scum 
not only provides working ground for the bacteria, but aids in pre- 
venting the penetration of light and air when the cover is removed, 
and holds the heat contained in the sewage and prevents the striking 
through of colder air. This scum sometimes reaches a thickness of 
over a foot and a half. After the effluent reaches the discharge 
chamber, or in some cases the last settling chamber, the method of 
final disposal must be determined, the decision being made with due 
regard to the existing local conditions. If a running stream or 
ravine is convenient, the solution is often easily made by discharg- 
ing the sewage into such a natural disposing medium or ground. 

When the effluent reaches the discharge chamber, it has been 
■purified to a great extent, but not entirely, and unless some natural 
means of disposal, such as a stream, is at hand, it is necessary to 
make provision for the carrying on of this final purifying process, 
which is commonly known as filtration. 

A method quite commonly employed, consists in discharging the 



302 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

effluent into a specially prepared trench close to the surface of the 
ground, or with its upper face open. 

For ordinary residences, a trench i8 to 20 ft. in length and 3 or 
4 ft. in depth should be sufficient, the trench being made of corre- 
spondingly larger dimensions when greater amounts of liquid must 
be cared for. At the bottom of the trench a thick layer of broken 
stone should be filled in, and above this a layer of gravel. Above 
the gravel a layer of coarse sand is sometimes used. Into this trench 
the liquid from the septic tank is discharged, and provision should be 
made for distributing it as evenly over the filtering bed as possible, 
in order that no one part of the trench may be called upon to per- 
form a greater amount of work than is its share. If too 'large an 
amount of liquid is delivered at one point, it cannot be properly 
cared for by the filtering material, and is therefore not properly 
purified. 

This form of disposal is sometimes carried further, by collecting 
the water filtered through the trench into an under drain, and from 
this pipe discharging it into a second filter. From the second filter 
the water may be pumped out onto the surface instead of allowing 
it to leech away into the soil. When pumped from the second filter, 
the sewage which entered the septic tank, has been transformed into 
an absolutely pure form. That this is true may be seen from the 
fact that such pump water has in some instances been used for 
drinking purposes. 

Sometimes the liquid discharged from the discharge tank is 
deposited over the surface of the ground, where filtration and 
the purifying action of the sun's rays complete the final purifying 
operation. 

This practice is not generally practicable, however, for various 
obvious reasons, among which are the lack of sufficient exposed sur- 
face of light soil, the proximity of other dwellings, the difficulty of 
securing an even distribution over the surface, etc. 

UNDERGROUND DISPOSAL OF PARTIALLY PURIFIED 

SEWAGE 

As a general thing, the most practicable method of final disposal 
of partially purified sewage, is obtained by discharging the contents 
of the discharge tank into an underground system of distributing 



UNDERGROUND DISPOSAL OF SEWAGE 303 

pipes. Such a system is shown in Fig. B, the illustration showing 
a plan view of the system. 

If the soil is light and porous, there is no difficulty in the use 
of this method of disposal, but it is not so satisfactory in its results 
when used in other soils. 

Good judgment should be used in determining the method of 
providing for final disposal of sewage. In the case of a moist soil, 
which is unfit for filtering purposes, the system mentioned above may 
be employed to advantage; that is, by the use of filter beds placed 
underground, the final filtered product being pumped out onto the 
surface. The underground disposal system, irrespective of the means 
of discharging the contents of the discharge tank into it, consists of 
a connection from the discharge tank into a main distributing under- 
ground pipe, from which a number of branches are taken out, the 
object of the piping being to distribute the liquid as evenly over the 
area used for disposal purposes as possible. These branch lines of 
pipe should be of unglazed earthenware, laid with open joints, so 
that through them the liquids may escape. These pipes may be laid 
in any way to conform to the shape of the distributing area. 

Laterals may be constructed of 2-in. pipe, and it is well to allow 
an opening of nearly a quarter of an inch at each joint. 

If such a joint is unprotected, sand will find its way into the 
pipe and gradually choke it up. Therefore it is well to use a thimble 
or collar of some sort to cover each joint. This collar may be a short 
piece of earthen pipe of a larger size than the pipe to be protected. 
Generally the branch distributing lines should be laid from 3>^ to 
4 ft. or more apart, in order that too large an amount of liquid may 
not be deposited over a given area. 

The pipes should be graded, for otherwise the liquid will escape 
in larger quantity through joints nearer the main, and those farthest 
from it will have comparatively little to do. If the soil is moist or 
of clay, the laterals should be run farther apart than in sandy soils. 
Experience shows that about one to one and a half feet of porous, 
loose-jointed tile is necessary to properly handle a gallon of liquid, 
according to the nature of the soil, and for heavy soils a greater 
length. Therefore, in providing underground disposal for a dis- 
charge tank holding 500 gallons of liquid, from 500 to 750 ft. of 
2-in. pipe would be demanded for its underground disposal. 

In grading the main distributing pipe, as well as the laterals. 



304 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

there is one point that should be guarded against. The pitch should 
be very gradual, as, if much pitch is given them, the liquid will quickly 
flow to the farthest ends of the main and laterals, and overburden 
such areas, while not giving other areas a sufficient share. 

Common fittings should not be used in connecting the laterals 
with the main, as the branch in such fittings is from the middle, and 
this would not allow all the liquid in the main to pass into the laterals. 
Special fittings are made for this kind of work, in which the branch 
is dropped below the center of the main fitting, sufficiently to allow 
all liquid in the main to escape through the branch. 

Unless these fittings are used on the main, the latter should be 
run with open joints, in order that at each discharge of liquid the 
entire volume may be able to escape into the soil. In order to give 
perfect results, the area covered, and the length of pipe used, should 
be sufficient to thoroughly dispose of one discharge of liquid before 
another is received. 

This final purifying action of filtration is the result of the action 
of a class of bacteria which are of entirely different character to 
those which do such effective work in the purifying process that goes 
on in the septic tank. While the latter operate out of contact with 
light and air, the action of the bacteria in the filtration purifying 
process, depends entirely on the presence of air and light. 

These bacteria exist in countless numbers in the air spaces 
which sand and other porous substances contain, their existence in 
such materials depending on the fact that air is easily admitted, upon 
which they depend. The better a filtering medium is for its purpose, 
the more porous it will be found to be. As air is admitted more 
easily to the soil near the surface, at these points bacteria will be 
found in the greatest number, and as greater depths are reached, the 
number of these bacteria rapidly decreases until their number is in- 
sufficient to accomplish satisfactory work. 

Therefore, the nearer the surface the underground distributing 
pipes are run, the greater the efficiency of the system. If possible, 
these pipes should be laid about a foot from the surface. Owing to 
frost, however, they must generally be laid deeper. 

If areas used for underground disposal are turfed over it will 
be found that the turf will afford considerable protection against 
frost. While the bacteria in the septic tank change the complex 
forms of sewage into simple chemical compounds, the action of the 



AUTOMATIC SEWAGE SIPHONS 305 

bacteria of the sand again changes the chemical nature of the 
Hquid, the change being from nitrites into nitrates, and resulting in 
chemically pure water. 

When first passed through primary or contact filter beds of 
broken stone and gravel, the liquid is broken up, and its particles 
exposed to the oxidizing action of the bacteria, and the action in the 
sand filter is similar, although more thorough. 

The entire change from sewage in the most extreme condition 
of contamination into pure water, is made by these simple processes, 
there being no outlay for expensive apparatus of any kind, or any 
demand for outlay in running expenses. A plant constructed on these 
lines may be, and often is, used for the reduction of the entire sew- 
age of villages and small towns, which could otherwise dispose of the 
public sewage only with great difficulty, and doubtless far less effi- 
ciently, and with much greater expense. 

The same system, on a smaller scale, may be employed for a 
residence, and with safety, even in thickly populated districts, for all 
the apparatus may be located underground, and, as already explained, 
its nature is such that it is in no way a menace, such as the cesspool 
always is. 

The whole plant for a small residence may usually be located in 
a back yard of ordinary size. 

While in many locations the close proximity of the septic tank 
to the house is not objectionable, in the use of it in cities certain 
restrictions are advisable, for it is not certain that it will receive 
proper attention, that leakage from the different chambers may not 
occur, etc. 

Therefore, except in the case of houses surrounded by a con- 
siderable extent of private grounds, it should not be used in thickly 
populated districts unless unavoidable. Its use in such places, how- 
ever, is not often called for, owing to the presence of public sewers. 

AUTOMATIC SEWAGE SIPHONS 

After the introduction of the septic tank it was seen that ordi- 
nary methods of discharging the contents were not desirable. 

For instance, in the employment of underground systems of dis- 
posal, an ordinary constant discharge from the septic tank would 
give poor results, as the liquid entering the main distributing pipe 



3o6 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

would be of such small amount that it would escape through the 
nearest joints, and never reach those farthest away. This would 
result in giving all the disposal work to a very small area, an amount 
greater than it could accomplish. In addition, a period of rest fol- 
lowing a period of work is necessary in order that the supply of air 
to the bacteria may be renewed. To solve this difficulty, it was seen 
that intermittent discharges of the full contents of the discharge 
chamber were necessary, the interval between successive discharges 
being a number of hours in duration. 

The automatic sewage siphon is the device employed for this 
purpose. There are numerous varieties on the market, depending 
for their action on more or less similar principles. 

In Fig. A of Plate 49, a very desirable form of sewage siphon 
is shown, attached to the outlet end of the discharge chamber of a 
septic tank. Its action is the following, depending upon the confin- 
ing of air between the liquid standing in the outlet of the siphon and 
the seal of the large trap: As the liquid rises in the discharge cham- 
ber, this confined air becomes constantly more compressed, until the 
pressure is great enough to blow the water out of the blow-ofif trap, 
thereby relieving the air, which is immediately followed by a heavy 
flow of water from the discharge chamber, of sufficient volume to 
quickly fill the long vertical arm, and start the siphon into full action, 
which continues until air enters the siphon from the outlet pipe 
through the air pipe. 

Air enters the air pipe only when the siphon has drawn the 
liquid in the tank so low that the siphon does not fill the outlet. A 
quick passage of the contents of the discharge chamber into the 
siphon is provided for by enlarging the outlet from the tank. 



Plate L 

PNEUMATIC SYSTEMS OF WATER SUPPLY 

—HYDRAULIC RAMS— PUMPS— WATER 

SUPPLY BY SIPHONAGE— PUMPING 

BY WINDMILL— CAPACITY OF 

TANKS — PROTECTION OF 

SUPPLY PIPES AGAINST 

FREEZING 



/='/aAe 50. 

C'=>un/-ry f^/umb/ng 





(^z^jDjQ)Iy f'=J£<^z^<5e, <Sfo^Ie ,e/-c. 



-c^^"/ 



/v5-/ gT^oo^ 



JVa/e. 




%^ 







'>.T.'.\^",->*^.':.-^,.--tfri\"^"\\<>.^/i ^.A"'\-:.i'.r^:^.!'y^\.^.'r^ 4-;^ 



Air <SujQ)jQ>Iy 



•i ■> - 







o ■> 









' (SfobJc 






—^ 






(^/'='J~C7^e (27(7 JZJt 




ng ^■ 




w^ 



\ 

Check 



fTell 



-\.'. •■ 




X . 



^:_- 



<Sjc)rJidg 



PNEUMATIC SYSTEMS OF WATER SUPPLY 

In considering the general subject of country plumbing under 
a previous plate, allusion has been made to different methods of pro- 
curing a supply of water for use in the country, where there is no 
system of public supply. In addition to the attic-tank system, which 
is so generally used to supply country houses, there is another sys- 
tem, known as the pneumatic system of supply, which has many 
advantages over the old method. This system is of comparatively 
recent introduction, and depends in its operation upon compressed 
air. The use of this system is dependent only on the ability to pro- 
cure a generous supply of water from a well, cistern, spring, or other 
source from which it may be pumped. A very important feature of 
this system is the fact that the tank may be located anywhere, either 
in the cellar, stable, underground, or at any other point where there 
is no danger of frost. 

This allows a pressure to be maintained on the water piping, 
without the necessity of using an attic tank, with all its attendant 
evils, such as the danger of leakage, straining of timbers under its 
great weight, etc. The tank is of wrought iron or steel, air tight, 
and is generally filled by a power pump, pumping engine, or wind- 
mill pump, although, excepting as a matter of labor and convenience, 
it may be filled by the use of the hand pump. 

Either a vertical or horizontal tank may be used, as most con- 
venient. 

There are several systems of pneumatic water supply on the 
market, the principal difference being in the methods employed in 
providing for the admission of air into the tank. In Plate 50, 
Fig. A represents the pneumatic tank located in the cellar, and 
Fig. B the tank located underground. The latter shows the use of 
a hand pump, and the former shows a lift-force pump operated by 
means of a brake. In both systems, which, by the way, are made 
by different manufacturers, it will be noted that both the force pipe 
from the pump and the supply pipe to fixtures, etc., connect into the 
bottom of the tank. A check valve between the pump and the tank 

309 



3IO MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

is necessary, to hold the pressure in the tank when the pump is not 
in operation. 

When the pump is in operation, a certain amount of air is 
pumped into the tank at every stroke, through a special form of auto- 
matic air valve. As the water rises in the tank, the air becomes more 
and more compressed, and when the tank has been filled about two- 
thirds full, it will be found that the air pressure is sufficient to force 
the water to any height ordinarily desired. In connection with the 
tank in Fig. A, a water gauge, seen at the left, serves to show the 
height of water in the tank, and a pressure gauge shows the pressure 
which the water is under, and indicates to the operator at the pump, 
when a sufficient pressure has been reached. 

A pressure of 75 lbs. may be reached with the pneumatic sys- 
tem, and the manufacturers will guarantee a pressure of 50 lbs. The 
latter pressure is sufficient to raise water 100 ft., and as 20 lbs. or so 
is sufficient to raise it to the third floor or attic, it will be clear that 
50 lbs. is ample for country use of almost any character. Manu- 
facturers also guarantee to deliver water by means of this system 
through horizontal lines of pipe a mile in length. 

The advantages of a pneumatic system are many. It not only 
does away with the attic tank, but allows the apparatus to be located 
conveniently to the pump, where it may be watched while the pump 
is running; the danger of freezing, common to elevated tanks placed 
out of doors, is avoided, also the expense of erecting towers to hold 
such a tank. An advantage to be gained in placing the tank under- 
ground, is that water delivered by it, is very nearly of a uniform 
temperature during all seasons of the year. The application of the 
pneumatic system of water supply covers a wide range, for it may 
be used in connection with a farm, for instance to provide a supply 
of water not only to the house, but also to the stables, carriage wash 
room, milk room, and may be used for lawn and garden purposes 
and in case of fire. The latter is a protection which country houses 
have always been sadly in need of, without the opportunity of filling 
the need. This same system has a much larger application in sup- 
plying institutions, factories, and even entire villages. 

If the demand is not too great, one large tank may be used. 
Otherwise one pump working continuously, or during certain periods, 
can be used to fill as many tanks, located in different houses, as 
desired. For ordinary house use — that is, where the supply is to be 



HYDRAULIC RAMS 311 

used only for household purposes — a tank holding 400 or 500 gallons 
will be found satisfactory. Tanks for pneumatic supply purposes are 
generally tested under at least 150 lbs. pressure, and are therefore 
strong enough to produce any desired pressure. 

The pressure produced in the use of the attic tank, however, 
is simply of an amount due to its height above the level at which 
water is delivered. 

It may be stated that, in the use of a windmill pumping into a 
pneumatic tank, a regulating c^dinder may be used, which will stop 
the action of the windmill whenever any given pressure in the tank 
is reached. 



HYDRAULIC RAMS 

The use of the hydraulic ram is the solution of many an other- 
wise difficult problem in securing a supply of water in the country. 
It is only under certain conditions that the ram can be made use of, 
but when feasible it serves a valuable purpose without further cost 
than that of installing it. 

In order to use the ram, the spring or other source of supply 
must be situated so that the ram may be located below it, with an 
opportunity for the waste water from the ram to be carried away 
from it. Such a location is usually to be found on a side hill. 

The operation of the hydraulic ram is based on the following 
principle: When a body of water is discharged downward through 
a pipe running at an angle, and its passage out of the end of the pipe 
is suddenly stopped, the momentum which the body of water has 
gained, will force a part of the water to a much higher level than 
that of the water before it passed into the pipe. The connections of 
the hydraulic ram are to be seen in Fig. C of Plate 50. 

In this case the source of supply for the ram is a spring located 
above it, as- necessarily required. The water enters the ram from 
the spring, through a pipe which is called the drive pipe, its passage 
being checked by the waste valve when it attempts to escape. The 
momentum acquired by the water in falling through the drive pipe, 
forces whatever water is not lost through the waste valve, up into 
the air chamber, compressing the air in the latter. A check valve 
at the entrance to the air chamber prevents any escape of the water 
in a backward direction, and the compressed air of the air chamber 



312 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

forces it through the only other outlet, that is, through the force pipe, 
which carries it to the point of delivery. It is necessary to maintain 
a supply of air in the air chamber of the ram, and this is accom- 
plished by an air valve, which admits air at each stroke, at a point 
below the air chamber. 

The proper operation of the ram depends entirely on the work- 
ing of the waste valve. When this valve is properly arranged, the 
action of the ram is continuous so long as it is supplied with water. 
In order that the valve shall be properly arranged to be self-acting, 
it should be weighted heavily enough to overbalance the pressure 
against its lower face. When a volume of water flows down the 
drive pipe from the spring, its weight and momentum is sufficient to 
suddenly close the waste valve. When this occurs the water in the 
drive pipe is for an instant without motion, and the force against 
the valve face is not great enough to keep it closed. 

The valve therefore opens, the water in the drive pipe is again 
set moving, and in seeking to escape through the valve, again closes 
it. This alternate opening and closing of the waste valve thus con- 
tinues without intermission, each descent of the water through the 
drive pipe forcing water up into the air chamber and thence to the 
point at which it is to be delivered. An overflow should be provided 
to the spring or whatever source of supply is used, in order that the 
water may always stand at the same height above the waste valve. 
If otherwise, the weight on the waste valve will not be properly 
adjusted, and the ram, therefore, not self-acting. 

The air valve is an important feature of the ram. In all sup- 
ply work, air is taken up mechanically by the water, and all air 
chambers in time lose their air by this means, and become water- 
logged. 

This would be a serious matter in the use of the hydraulic ram, 
as the operation of the weighted waste valve without an air chamber, 
would cause a violent shock at each stroke, which would be felt 
throughout the supply piping, resulting in a loud cracking and rum- 
bling noise, and possibly in the destruction of the piping as well. 

The air enters by virtue of the creation of a partial vacuum at 
the inner face of the valve, which allows atmospheric pressure to 
open the valve at each stroke and force in a small quantity of air, 
thus renewing any loss that the air chamber may have sustained. 

Rams may be operated with a dift'erence in level between the 



HYDRAULIC RAMS 313 

waste valve and surface of the source of supply of only 16 in., 
although a greater difference is desirable for good results. It is 
better practice to use a fall somewhat greater than actually required 
to perform the work, but not much greater, as an excessive fall 
means greater momentum, with a consequent greater wear and tear 
on the ram and piping. Five to 10 ft. is an amount of fall on the 
drive pipe that can generally be depended upon for good work. 
Manufacturers of the common makes of hydraulic rams claim that 
the ram will deliver approximately one-seventh of the water entering 
the ram, to a height approximately five times the difference of eleva- 
tion of the waste valve and surface of the spring, and to a height 
twenty times such difference in elevation, one-fourteenth of the water 
entering the ram. The greater the height through which the water 
is to be raised, then, the greater will be the waste of water. 

This waste of water is the one great obstacle, in many cases, to 
the use of the ram, as it generally requires a considerable supply 
to operate it. Rams or hydraulic engines are now made, for which 
the manufacturers claim a much higher rate of efficiency than can 
be obtained in the use of the common ram. While the action of the 
common ram depends upon the opening and closing of a heavily 
weighted valve, the valve in the modern hydraulic engine is made 
very much lighter, its opening resulting from the creation of a 
vacuum below the valve, and the weight on the waste valve being so 
regulated that the latter almost balances. This results in the rapid 
opening and closing of the valve, which in turn results in a quicker 
stroke. These and other improvements guarantee, as claimed by 
the manufacturers, 30 ft. of elevation of the water in the delivery 
pipe from the ram, for each foot that the water descends in entering 
the ram from the source of supply. This result, it is claimed, is 
accomplished with much less waste of water. The modern hydraulic 
engine will operate under any fall on the drive pipe, from 18 in. to 
50 ft., will force water to a height of 500 ft., and is made in sizes 
capable of pumping any amount of water up to 1,000,000 gallons, 
during twenty-four hours. 

The waste water should be carried away by a drain as fast as 
it collects in the ram pit, for if not, it will back up and prevent the 
operation of the ram. 

The drive pipe of the ram should be about twice the diameter 
of the force pipe; it should run on an incline without other bends 



314 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

than the one necessary to carry it into the ram ; and this pipe should 
be air-tight. The end of the drive pipe in the spring, should be sub- 
merged to keep out air, and be provided with a strainer to prevent 
entrance into the ram of foreign substances, as the lodgment of 
such substances on the valve may prevent its proper action. 

In order to provide an unbroken incline of the drive pipe to the 
ram, when it is impossible to do so in the ordinary manner without 
making a very deep excavation, a tank or stand pipe with open end 
may be placed on the pipe at some point between the ram and the 
place where it is necessary to bend it, such tank or stand pipe being 
of sufficient height to allow water to stand in it at the same level as 
in the original source of supply. 

A form of ram known as the double-acting ram is now built, 
and is of much value when the supply of pure water to be used for 
water supply is limited, and a poorer quality of water is also at hand. 
By means of this ram the poorer water supply is utilized to operate 
the ram, the latter delivering to the house-supply system only the 
pure water. The ram has a great variety of applications in country 
work, and is very generally in use not only for private supplies, but 
for supplying institutions, factories, etc., and even on public supplies 
of towns and villages. 

PUMPS 

The simplest form of pump is the suction pump, and this is the 
form most commonly in use. Its action depends upon atmospheric 
pressure, which at sea level is approximately 15 lbs. to the square 
inch, and therefore capable of raising water to a height somewhat 
over 33 ft. in a perfect vacuum. 

The suction pump is provided with an upper and a lower box. 
When the pump piston moves upward, it creates a more or less per- 
fect vacuum behind it, and as a consequence the atmospheric pres- 
sure exerted on the surface of the water in the well, forces in water 
to fill this vacuum. 

When the piston descends, the lower box closes and the upper 
box opens, allowing the water in the pump to pass through the 
upper box into the barrel of the pump, and be emptied out of the 
spout when the piston is next raised. By means of the suction pump, 
water can never be raised through the entire theoretical height of 



PUMPS 315 

33 ft., as a perfect vacuum cannot be produced in the pump, and 
because of the friction of the water in passing through the pipe. 

The Hft pump is another common form of pump, especially use- 
ful in driven wells. 

The barrel of this pump, and the lower valve, are set below the 
surface of the water in the well, the upward stroke of the piston 
lifting the water without the help of atmospheric pressure as in the 
suction pump. 

The lower cylinder is made small enough to fit into the bore 
of a driven well, and provided at its lower end with a strainer. 

When the cylinder is not of sufficient length to reach into the 
water, a suction pipe may be connected to it, the pump then deliver- 
ing water both by suction and lifting. 

A third form is the lift-force pump. It has the same upper 
and lower valves that the suction pump has, but has a tight top pro- 
vided with stuffing box, through which the pump rod works. At a 
point above the upper box, a force or delivery pipe is connected, in 
which is a check valve. As the water is raised above the upper box 
by suction, it opens the check valve in the force pipe, and passes into 
it. On the down stroke this check valve is closed by the water above 
it, thus allowing the force pipe to hold all the water that enters it. 
These pumps are always provided with an air chamber on the force 
pipe, which produces a steady stream instead of a broken one, and 
also prevents any strain on the pump and piping. 

There is also the double-acting force pump, which delivers water 
on each stroke, whether upward or downward. This is a modified 
form of the common force pump, contains four valves, and gives a 
constant stream, which is very desirable for fire and other purposes. 

For providing a large supply of water for small public-supply sys- 
tems, for factories, institutions, and fire purposes, a system of driven 
wells may be used to great advantage, according to methods similar 
to the following, providing such supply is of sufficient amount. 
Below the surface of the ground, and below the frost line, a line of 
main pipe is laid, from the middle of which a smaller pipe of proper 
size is run up to the surface and connected to the power pump as a 
suction. At intervals along the line of main horizontal pipe, these 
intervals depending on the amount of the supply that exists under- 
ground, connections are taken to numerous driven pipes. These 
pipes connect to driven w^ells located several feet from the main, the 



3i6 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

entire system of driven wells covering sufficient area to enable the 
requisite amount of water to be obtained. Generally the driven wells 
are sunk at irregular depths. Such a system, operated by a power 
pump or pumping engine, will deliver a very large supply of water. 

A few remarks on driven wells may be of value. 

When water has been struck, it is necessary to know how much 
of the strainer is submerged, to find which information, a string with 
a small weight attached may be let down into the drive pipe, and 
when withdrawn, the length that has been wet, noted. If the strainer 
is entirely submerged, the water should be tested, and if found of 
undesirable quality the driving should continue until a satisfactory 
supply is obtained. An old pump is then screwed onto the drive pipe 
and operated until the water issuing from it comes clear and free 
of sand. The strainer on the drive pipe may not become clogged 
for a period of twelve or fifteen years, or possibly longer. When 
this happens, it becomes necessary to draw out the old pipe and 
replace the old strainer with a new one, or, if unable to withdraw 
the pipe, to drive a new well. 

WATER SUPPLY BY SIPHONAGE 

When the source of a water supply is at a higher elevation than 
the point at which the water is to be delivered, and there are no 
intervening obstructions between the two points, the supply may be 
delivered by gravity. 

When there is a hill or rise of land between the source and the 
point of delivery, however, the only method that may be employed 
is to convey the water by means of siphonage. 

If the intervening elevation rises above the source to a height 
to which atmospheric pressure cannot force the water, the siphon 
cannot be made to work. Theoretically, the siphon will raise water 
to a height somewhat above 33 ft., but in actual practice, owing to 
friction and the lack of an absolutely perfect vacuum, this height 
cannot be reached by several feet. The great obstacle to obtaining 
a supply of water by siphonage is the accumulation of air at the high 
point or points on the supply line. This trouble may be remedied by 
the use of cocks located accessibly at the high points, through which 
to vent the collections of air. They must be opened frequently in 
order that the siphon may operate properly, and such constant atten- 



WATER SUPPLY BY SIPHONAGE 317 

tion is always a matter of inconvenience. If not given frequent 
attention, however, the siphon will soon cease entirely to deliver 
water. 

There is comparatively little trouble experienced from air-lock 
in siphons that lift water through distances of 10 ft. or under, and 
empty it at a point low enough to develop a strong flow. Under 
such circumstances, the air mixed with the water is carried along 
with it. In the case of lifts much greater than 10 ft., however, air 
begins to give trouble, the trouble increasing rapidly as the lift is 
increased, especially when the crown of the siphon is sharp and un- 
able to contain much air. Under the latter conditions, the siphon 
will cease working in a very few hours. Another method sometimes 
employed to relieve the siphon of air, is the placing of an air pump 
on the crown of the siphon, for use in pumping out the air that may 
have collected. The interval between successive operations of such 
a pump cannot be definitely stated, as the nature of the water some- 
times affects this matter, as well as the height through which the 
water is raised. 

There is still another method, more efifective than either of 
those already described, which may be applied as follows. A con- 
nection should be made at the top of the siphon into a galvanized 
sheet-iron tank of 2 or 3 gallons capacity. Between this tank and 
the siphon a shut-ofif is located, and also one above it, a funnel being 
soldered into the upper end of it. Close the lower cock and open 
the upper one to allow water to be poured in, which should fill the 
tank and the funnel. 

If the upper cock is then closed and the lower one opened, the 
water will drive out the air in the siphon and maintain the siphon 
in this condition until the tank becomes empty. When the tank has 
drained out, close the lower cock, open the upper one, and refill the 
tank. Now again open the lower cock and close the upper one, and 
the tank is prepared to perform its work as a receiver for the air 
that accumulates at the crown of the siphon. 

By the use of such a device as this, the siphon may be kept free 
of air for a considerable length of time. The larger the tank used, 
the longer the interval between the successive fillings. Galvanized 
wrought-iron pipe and galvanized cast-iron fittings are better suited 
for siphons than other materials. 

The use of cast iron with caulked lead joints for large siphons, 



3i8 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

is very poor policy, as experience shows that much difficulty is expe- 
rienced in keeping it air-tight, a very essential feature in the proper 
operation of a siphon. 

The siphon may be made to cover a very wide range of work, 
as siphons of large size may be used as successfully as those of 
smaller size. In the use of large-pipe siphons, however, it is neces- 
sary to use special starting apparatus and to provide for constant 
attention to the removal of air at all high points. These siphons have 
been made to carry water through distances of many miles. The 
same principle is successfully applied to the disposal of sewage under 
similar circumstances, large amounts of sewage being thus handled. 



PUMPING BY WINDMILL 

The following suggestions on windmill pumping may be found 
of value. One of the most desirable features in this work is the 
efficiency of the plant in light winds. A pump used in connection 
with a windmill should be of smaller size than when operated by hand. 

When water is pumped by hand, a pump must be used which 
will perform the greatest amount of work in the shortest time. 

The requirements are different in the use of windmills, how- 
ever, for generally the windmill need not run more than three or 
four hours of the day to supply the tank with all the water that is 
necessary. During certain seasons of the year there are many days 
when the wind is very light, and at such times the windmill should 
work under as light a load as possible in order that it may be certain 
of performing some work continuously under such adverse condi- 
tions. Therefore a small pump, even though unable to furnish more 
than half the water that could be pumped by hand during a given 
time, will prove most satisfactory. 

The use of a small pump will allow the windmill to work a 
greater number of hours during light winds, and will be found to 
pump more water during the entire twenty-four hours of the day 
than a larger pump would. 

A great mistake is commonly made in building the windmill 
tower too low. It should be of such height that the wind may reach 
it freely and without being interrupted in any way. Neighboring 
buildings, trees, hills, etc., determine the height at which it should 



CAPACITY OF TANKS 319 

be built. If such obstructions are met with, the tower should rise 
10 ft. above them. 

Another point to be considered is that when such obstructions 
exist, they are liable during high winds to be the means of producing 
eddies and counter currents, which result harmfully to the windmill. 
Moreover, the currents of air at elevations farther away from the 
ground become more steady and uniform, allowing the windmill to 
work more efficiently and with less wear and tear. For the reasons 
above mentioned, windmill towers should ordinarily be constructed 
not less than 30 ft. in height, and of sufficient strength and firmness 
to give the windmill as great stability and freedom from vibration 
as is possible. The following information is necessary in giving 
intelligent data concerning the selection and installation of a wind- 
mill proper for the work required: 

The character of the well and its depth should be known — 
whether it is a driven, drilled, or dug well; if drilled, the inside 
diameter of the casing must be known; the height and distance 
through which water is required to be raised, these dimensions being- 
taken from the foot of the pump to the bottom of the storage tank. 

The amount of water entering the well during the dry seasons 
should be known, also the size of tank used, and the amount of 
water required for an entire day's use, and the height necessary 
to construct the windmill tower to provide free access of wind to 
the windmill. 



CAPACITY OF TANKS 

In connection with windmills, rams, etc., which pump to storage 
tanks, it is often required to estimate the dimensions of tanks to hold 
certain amounts of water, or to find how many gallons are held by 
tanks of certain dimensions. 

These tanks are generally either rectangular or cylindrical in 
shape. In either case the cubic contents of the tank in cubic inches, 
divided by 231, will show the number of gallons which the tank is 
capable of holding, 231 representing the number of cubic inches in 
a gallon. If the dimensions of the. tank are in feet, the capacity may 
be found by multiplying the cubic feet of contents of the tank by 
7.476, this quantity representing the number of gallons in a cubic foot. 



320 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

The following rules will give the capacity in gallons of rectan- 
gular and cylindrical tanks. 

To find the capacity of a rectangular tank: Multiply the internal 
length, breadth, and depth in feet together, and multiply this result 
by 7.476. Or multiply together the three interior dimensions in 
inches and divide the result by 231. 

To find the capacity of a cylindrical tank: Multiply the square 
of half the interior diameter in feet by 3.1416, multiply this result by 
the depth in feet, and this result by 7.476. Or multiply the square 
of half the interior diameter in inches by 3.1416, then multiply this 
result by the depth in inches, and divide this result by 231. 

If a tapering cylindrical tank is used, add the large and small 
diameters together, and find half this amount. This will give the 
average diameter, and the contents may then be found by the regular 
rule for cylindrical tanks. 

Thus, the capacity of a rectangular tank measuring 4X5X6 
ft. will be found in the following manner: 



or 



4 X 5 X 6 X 7476 = 897 gallons, 
(48 X 60 X 72) -^ 231 = 897 



The capacity of a cylindrical tank 5 ft. in diameter and 6 ft. 
deep will be found as follows: 

2.5 X 2.5 X 3-1416 X 6 X 7.476 = 881 gallons, 
or 

(30 X 30 X 3-1416 X 72) ^ 231 = 881 

The capacity of a cylindrical tank tapering from 5 ft. in diameter 
at the bottom to 3 ft. in diameter at the top, and 5 ft. deep, will be 
found as follows: 

(54"3)-^2 = 4 ft. ^ average diameter, 

2 X 2 X 3-1416 X 5 X 7-476 = 470 gallons, 
or 

24X24X3-1416X60-^231=470 



PROTECTION OF SUPPLY PIPES 321 

PROTECTION OF SUPPLY PIPES AGAINST FREEZING 

Many attempts along various lines have been made to solve the 
question of protection of water pipes against freezing, with greater 
or less satisfactory results. 

In some cases the covering of supply pipes with prepared cov- 
ering, such as used in steam and hot-water heating, is effectual, 
although its use is not so satisfactory as might be supposed. If the 
pipe is exposed to extreme cold, as would be the case if run in an 
unprotected place out of doors, there is possibly no more effective 
protection than that afforded by the following: 

Around the pipe, and about one inch from it, build a wooden 
box of the length of the exposed section, and outside this box con- 
struct a second box, with an inch air space between the two. Four 
or five of these boxes will afford ample protection for a pipe, although 
more of them can be used to great advantage if the exposure is 
extreme. 

The boxing may be of rough boarding if it is desired to save 
expense. It is not the boarding that affords the protection to the 
pipe so much as the air confined between the several boxes. 

Pipes laid at the bottom of streams are generally well protected, 
and also when laid in turfed ground they are very much better pro- 
tected than when laid in uncovered ground. Another method that is 
often effective is to lay the pipe in trenches surrounded with hot 
horse manure. The heat of the manure will keep the frost from 
affecting the piping. The same method may be followed above 
ground by running the pipe in a box filled with manure. 

The manure must be renewed usually each year, however, as it 
loses its strength in that time, then affording no protection. Saw- 
dust cannot usually be depended upon as a protection for piping, as 
it absorbs moisture. 

Hair felt closely packed about an exposed pipe acts as a strong 
protection. The latter material is of special value in pipes inside 
the house when passing through partitions or floors, the spaces be- 
tween which are cold. 



Plate LI 

WATER SUPPLY FOR COUNTRY HOUSE- 
DOUBLE-ACTING RAM— CISTERN 
FILTERS— HOT-WATER SUPPLY 



^a/'(zr Supply for 

g7o2zJ£ ^SujDpIy <db=C^ <^ 



Plal-e SI, 



~'027Z 



k^^ry^^ 






/ ? 



/ 






jG)Z-27ZlZ22Zff 



T7^^ 



<2>^tz.r2zoce 

C<:>2l 



a 




3 



JS)«=> zi ^7e ^ c/zjzp 



02TZ, 



jQ)r2ve ^Ipe 

f2''=>27Z, J^olte 

/ 




^ 






<z7&2J- 

X 



CJTCulo/Jng 
§>2js>e ^ 



2 



V 




^0222 jfyo^ez' 



\ 



fr\ 



C.I. < 



6-frainer 



I Mil II I 



P 



3^; 



C2s/e2rTz. " 



s 



C2\s/e2-2z <^JI/e2rJ^ 



^SV^^ 




<277-«=»i72 



s 

4 - 



55} 



-/o C2\j/er/z 



CjyS/erjz 

sPLL27i7Q 



JL 



^ 




■^^m 






C2>5/-e2'JZ 

<§>ve2y'J<^fir 



» 




H%_-- — 




1 1 iiin 






^jQ2-22z^ ' ' -^(^/z'oi'izer^ •■V 



WATER SUPPLY FOR COUNTRY HOUSE 

In the foregoing pages reference has been made to several of 
the features shown in Plate 51. This illustration gives a general 
system of supply, showing several details of value. 



DOUBLE-ACTING RAM 

The double-acting ram is of very great value under certain cir- 
cumstances ; for instance, when a limited supply of pure spring water 
is obtainable, but in too small quantity to operate the ram continu- 
ously. Under these conditions, any other water supply of inferior 
quality from a pond, lake, or stream properly located may be em- 
ployed to operate the ram, its arrangement and connections being 
such that nothing but the pure water supply will be pumped. This 
machine is of comparatively recent origin and is very effective 

CISTERN FILTERS 

One of the chief features of Plate 51 is the work in connection 
with the cistern. 

The collection and storage of rain water is very necessary as a 
means of providing a supply of soft water when the natural water 
supply is hard. Under such conditions it is sometimes necessary to 
use rain water for drinking purposes. 

The storage of drinking water in tanks and cisterns is not advis- 
able if better methods can be employed, but is sometimes necessar}^, 
and when this is the case too much attention cannot be given to pro- 
viding the best possible conditions. To place the water coming from 
the roof in proper condition for drinking purposes it is necessary to 
filter it. 

If rain water could be stored without taking up any impurities, 
it would be the purest water supply that could be obtained, but in 
falling upon the roof it not only carries with it such things as twigs, 
pieces of slate, etc., but also things which are much worse, such as 
decaying vegetable matter, bird manure, and dust and dirt which 
contain all kinds of impurities. 

325 



326 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

These things not only make the water impure, but discolor it 
to some extent, and cause it to give out foul odors. 

It will thus be seen that before being pumped from the cistern 
into the house tank the water should be purified, and filtration is the 
easiest and most practicable way of performing the work. There 
are many forms of cistern filters. 

A simple form of filter may be built in the following manner. 
Only a small part of the cistern is needed for the filter chamber, 
which should be of brick, extending from the wall about two feet 
into the cistern. It is practically a brick box built up from the bot- 
tom of the cistern about two or three feet, the top of the box also 
being bricked over. The bottom of this brick box should have a 
thick covering of gravel or broken stone and charcoal. Narrow open- 
ings should be provided at the bottom of the brick box at different 
points around it in order to allow the water of the cistern to pass 
through into the filter, and at these openings coarse wire cloth should 
be used to prevent the gravel and charcoal from working out. The 
top surface of the filtering material should also be protected in the 
same manner. 

The brick box should not be covered with any coating to make 
it water-tight. 

The suction pipe of the pump should end inside the filter box, 
resting firmly above the filtering material. It is also well to provide 
an air pipe of 5^- or ^-in. pipe, connecting into the filtering chamber 
and ending above the surface of the water in the cistern. The cis- 
tern water will filter through the filtering material and also through 
the bricks of the filter chamber, and when pumped from the latter to 
the house tank will be entirely suitable for drinking purposes. Porous 
stone and brick, by the way, make excellent filtering materials, as 
they are filled with minute air spaces, which is a necessary feature 
in any material that is to be used for filtering purposes. After hav- 
ing been in use for two or three years the filter chamber should be 
torn out, the filtering material renewed, and the bricks thoroughly 
cleaned before being used again, or new ones used, which would be 
better, as the pores of the bricks will have become more or less filled 
in this length of time. If the old bricks are to be used again, it will 
be a good plan to bake them, thus destroying any impurities that may 
exist in them. 

While the filtering arrangement just described is efficient and 



CISTERN FILTERS 327 

satisfactory, it is an excellent idea in such work as this to prevent as 
far as possible the entrance of impurities into the cistern in the first 
place, and to filter the water also in some manner similar to the 
method described. 

A sort of catch basin, such as shown in Plate 51, three or four 
feet in each of its three dimensions, or three or four feet in diameter 
and of about the same depth, if built in cylindrical form, may be used 
to hold back from the cistern much of the coarser substances, and 
thus prevent the cistern filter from becoming so quickly clogged. 

This catch basin may be built against the cistern or separate 
from it, its top reaching to the surface of the ground and provided 
with a removable cover. A cast-iron grating should cover the full 
area of the catch basin, and be set securely a few inches from the 
bottom of it. Above the grating, and reaching nearly to the top of 
the catch basin, gravel or broken stone should be filled in, and from 
the upper part of this material an outlet of the same size as the con- 
ductor pipe is carried into the cistern. The conductor pipe from the 
roof is carried into the catch basin to a point below the iron grating. 
Therefore, to reach the cistern, all rain water must pass through the 
broken stone or gravel, which is easily renewed when necessary. It 
should be borne in mind that this catch basin should be used only as 
an aid to the cistern filter. 

Another very good and simple form of cistern filter can be con- 
structed as shown in Plate 51. 

In the center of the cistern several lengths of large-size porous 
tile should be securely joined together, the bottom being cemented 
to the bottom of the cistern. The tile should be completely filled with 
broken stone and charcoal, and the suction pipe of the pump con- 
nected to the top. At the bottom of the tile, holes should be drilled 
through it in sufficient number to allow water to pass into the filter- 
ing material. The cistern water also filters through the tile. The 
connection of the suction pipe into the filter should be so made that 
it cannot break the tiling or the cement joints, and thus destroy its 
effectiveness by allowing unfiltered water to be pumped. 

If desirable, this same filter may be laid on the bottom of the cis- 
tern, with the filtering holes in the end opposite the suction-pipe 
connection. 

In Plate 51 the filtered cistern water is pumped into the 
attic storage tank, and an overflow from the latter run to the 



328 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

cistern. From the cistern an overflow is run to the surface of the 
ground. 

It is necessary always to provide an unfailing supply of water, 
and the use of the double-acting ram, together with the use of rain 
water, present means of doing this. If it is desired to use cistern 
water at the pump, a faucet devised for this purpose may be attached 
to the pump at the bottom of the air chamber. 

In the use of tanks for rain-water storage, it is better to use tin- 
lined sheet copper for the lining than sheet lead, as rain water will 
often attack lead. It is a fact that a pure water will more often 
attack metals than a water containing a large amount of impurities. 

HOT-WATER SUPPLY 

In connection with the supply work shown in Plate 51 there is 
also shown a system of hot-water supply, in which the kitchen-range 
boiler is heated both by the kitchen range and by a coil in the fur- 
nace. This is a very common practice not only in country work, but 
in the city also. Very often a small bath-room radiator may be 
heated from the hot-water supply. 

The hot-water supply system is represented by the single heavy 
lines. There are several methods of heating a range boiler from the 
kitchen range and another heating source below it, and the method 
shown is probably the most satisfactory. It will be noted that in this 
method the course of the circulation of hot water is continuous, the 
hot water from the furnace passing through the range water-front, , 
thence to the boiler and to the fixtures, and, when it has cooled, 
returning to the furnace coil. Two lines of circulation are shown, 
each being brought together on the return. 

The use of circulating pipes, if properly installed, insures a con- 
stant supply of hot water close to the fixtures supplied, and naturally 
obviates the necessity of drawing ofif a long line of cold water before 
the water will run hot, as must be done in work unprovided with 
circulation. 

This saving in the use of water is a matter of importance wher- 
ever water is metered or limited in amount. 

Whenever the house supply is from an attic tank the hot-water 
supply must be under tank pressure, in the use of which system an 
expansion pipe is necessary. 



Plate LII 

THAWING UNDERGROUND WATER PIPES 

BY ELECTRICITY 






\ 



t 









Slecrrzc 

Jhi^25/273^ 

J2^ai22^ 



<s7z^yse>s 



J2Se/er 



<s72:'C7J2>^<=>2^J2ZeZ'' 



<3eco.7zcfo7y^ 









(I ''z 



'::'^ 



'-\ 




^^J^ 



\l ~i !• 



'=.'.'\ 



s 



^^v^^^v 



'-^^'^'^'^^^ 









<s^e2'yjce' 







THAWING UNDERGROUND WATER PIPES BY 

ELECTRICITY 

A SUCCESSION of severe winters has had the result of estabhsh- 
ing the practice of thawing frozen water mains and service pipes by- 
means of electricity. In some sections during the winter of 1903-4 
water mains 7 ft. underground were frozen, and the old method of 
digging up the frozen ground to expose the affected pipe was found 
to be a matter of great expense, especially as several thousands of 
freeze-ups occurred in some of the large cities. 

The principle upon which this method works is the fact that an 
electric current, in passing through a conductor which offers consid- 
erable resistance to its passage, develops a great amount of heat 
in the conducting material. 

In passing an electric current through a frozen water pipe there 
is sufficient resistance encountered to generate the heat necessary to 
thaw the pipe. The ice itself offers great resistance, it being a poor 
conductor, while the pipe, especially at its joints, offers a consider- 
able amount also. With this principle to work upon, the thawing of 
pipes may be accomplished if the means are at hand for providing 
a large enough current, in this work the securing of a large amount 
of current being of most importance, just as in the use of water for 
some purposes, the volume which may be obtained is of greater im- 
portance than the pressure which it is under. 

Many different and successful methods have been made use of 
in supplying the electric surrent. In sizable towns and in cities, the 
most convenient source of electricity for this work has been the 
electric-lighting mains, most of which are now alternating circuits. 

In employing alternating currents it is necessary to use what is 
known as a step-down transformer. Such a device consists essentially 
of two coils of wire adjacent to each other, but not connected together 
in any way. The ends of the primary coil are connected to the light- 
ing mains, and the passage of the current through this coil induces 
a current in the secondary coil. The step-down transformer takes a 
current from the mains at a high voltage or pressure and delivers 
it through the secondary coil under a much lower voltage. 

331 



332 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

Currents under various voltages, up to several thousand in 
amount, have been used on the primary and transformed generally 
to about 50 volts on the secondary. 

An electric circuit is made up of three factors — current in 
amperes, voltage, and resistance. As the resistance increases, the 
amount of current decreases, and vice versa. 

The thawing apparatus is generally placed upon a wagon or 
sled, and consists principally of the transformer and what is known 
as a water resistance. The latter is usually in the form of a small 
barrel filled with salted water, in which two copper plates are im- 
mersed, each being connected to a wire. 

After this apparatus has been taken to the place where the 
thawing is to be done, the primary leads are connected to the electric- 
light mains, proper fuses and an ammeter for measuring the current 
being provided. 

The secondary leads or connections are then attached at either 
end of the frozen section, and the water resistance placed at any 
point in the secondary circuit, with the copper plates far apart. 
When in this position the resistance is great, and the amount of cur- 
rent small. When it is seen that a larger amount of current is 
necessary, it may be obtained by reducing the resistance, that is, by 
moving the plates closer together. Various amounts of current are 
required, depending on the conditions of each individual piece of 
work. For service pipes, which are naturally more often affected 
than the mains, currents of an amount between 200 and 300 amperes 
are generally used. 

Long leads are used on this work, and when possible the con- 
nection may be made most easily by attaching one of the secondary 
leads to the nearest hydrant, and the other to a faucet or to the 
piping inside the house, the current thus being allowed to pass 
through the frozen section. Attention should be given to making 
as good connections to the hydrant and faucet as possible, as a poor 
contact at either place may result in burning the metal. 

When there is no hydrant conveniently located, connection may 
be made to the piping of an adjacent house, and if the latter is too 
far distant it sometimes becomes necessary to dig down to the pipe 
to make the connection. 

When the service pipes of two or more adjacent houses are to 
be thawed, the several water services may be connected in series, 



THAWING UNDERGROUND WATER PIPES 333 

and a single application of the current answer for thawing all of 
them. 

By using long secondary leads, frozen service pipes of several 
houses may often be thawed without changing the primary connec- 
tions to the lighting mains. 

So universal has the practice become of thawing frozen mains 
and service pipes by electricity, that apparatus designed especially 
for such work may now be procured of manufacturers of electrical 
apparatus. 

In some cases, where it was impossible to use lighting or power 
circuits, portable outfits have been used in this work, consisting of 
a steam or gas engine connected to an electric generator. Storage 
batteries have also been made use of. The time used in thawing pipes 
depends so largely on conditions, size of pipe, length of frozen sec- 
tion, amount of current available, etc., that it is difficult to make any 
estimate of it. Under favorable conditions, however, service pipes 
of different sizes have been thawed out in from ten to twenty min- 
utes, and long lines of water mains, as large as 10 in. in size, in two 
or three hours. 

The plumber, being ordinarily unacquainted with electrical work, 
should always seek the advice or the services of competent electricians 
before attempting this class of work, as errors in connections on his 
part might result seriously. 

The workman inexperienced in electrical work might easily 
make a mistake which would not only result in considerable dam- 
age to apparatus, but which might also affect the lighting circuit to 
such an extent as to render it useless until repaired. In addition, 
there is the danger of serious or fatal injury to the workman. 

The matter of caring for frozen mains and services has in many 
cities been taken over by the city water department, the thawing 
operations being performed by them, in combination with the electric- 
lighting companies. This would appear to be by far the best method 
under the circumstances. 



Plate LIII 

DOUBLE BOILERS 



D oujb/e 



P/al-Q 53. 









E 



^ 






£. 



^ 






' ^ — - — ■ ^ 



/t^'c^ 



^i-esszz2-e 
CoJd 









iTZTzez- 



A 

<2702ZJ^ 



/r/p.A. 



■ ^ 



B o//er^y 



<z7ell-/-<7le 






-^«^^ 



# 



Jq)2^/-2^I^u/22ZQ 



j^ 



^Ija 



e^s 



<27£;2zJ€ \Szzpp2y 

■f2r<=>J7Z SPzz.27Zp °2' 




^o/e22./ Cu./-^y 



/ 









s 



3 



-y<72yes 




^rC7TZ cJz Js22Z£^ 

n/ 




^ 



t ~ l | T | | T | 'I . i T i . l \t 



J2Z027Z 



Wo/er , 



\ ' " / ^ 

Jq>2^2JO Je)2'2JOS 



Ja)2'OPv- '^y 



DOUBLE BOILERS 

While the principle of the double boiler is simple and its con- 
nections straightforward, there are comparatively few who under- 
stand the manner in which it should be installed. The double boiler 
is used in city buildings of such height that the water under city 
pressure will not at all times reach the upper floors. 

It consists of two boilers, one inside the other, the outer boiler 
being connected in the usual manner with the heater, and the inner 
boiler receiving its heat from the hot water in the boiler which 
surrounds it. 

This form of boiler is much used in large residences, and often 
in apartment buildings. 

In most of the largest buildings, however, where very large 
amounts of hot water are required, the water is pumped into the 
house tank, and the entire hot-water supply for the building deliv- 
ered under tank pressure. 

The outer boiler is supplied by city pressure, while the inner 
boiler is under tank pressure. The lower floors, which can be reached 
by city pressure, are supplied from the outer boiler, and the upper 
floors, which cannot be reached by city pressure, are supplied from 
the inner boiler. The connections for the double boiler are to be 
seen in Fig. A, Plate 53. 

The hot-water supply line from each boiler should be provided 
with an expansion pipe taken from the high point on the line and 
emptying over the house tank. 

The supply to the latter is delivered by a pump or water lift. 
From the tank an overflow should be carried, generally into some 
open fixture which has a sufficiently large waste to insure the passage 
of all overflow water that may enter it. A tell-tale pipe should also 
be run from the tank to a fixture conveniently located, so that the 
pump operator may be warned when the tank has been sufficiently 
filled. Beneath the house tank a drip pan should be provided to col- 
lect any leakage that may come from the tank, and from this pan a 
drip pipe delivers such leakage into some open fixture. 

337 



338 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

In the event of a breakdown of the pump, or from other cause, 
there is always danger that the house tank may lose its supply. If 
this condition should continue for some time, it might result in dan- 
ger to the inner boiler, to guard against which a connection is made 
from the pressure supply to the outer boiler, into the tank supply to 
the inner boiler, a check valve, C, being used on this connection. 
When the system is working normally the check valve remains closed, 
owing to the pressure of the tank supply, but when this is withdrawn, 
as would happen after a time if the pump were not in operation, the 
street pressure will open the check valve, and thus keep the inner 
boiler supplied with water. A check valve, B, prevents the siphon- 
age of the contents of the outer boiler in the case of a break in the 
service pipe. It is the use of this check valve that necessitates the 
use of an expansion pipe on the hot-water supply from the outer 
boiler, the check valve cutting off the natural means of expansion. 

The valves A and D control the use of these two lines. If cir- 
culating pipes are used, as they should be on such work as this, the 
tank circulating pipe should connect into the return of the inner 
boiler, and the pressure circulating pipe should connect into the 
return to the heater. 

Special attention should be given to properly draining the double 
boiler. If the inner boiler is drawn off first, there may be danger 
of collapsing it, due to the creation of a partial vacuum inside it and 
street pressure outside of it. This danger is eliminated by arrang- 
ing the draw-off in such a way that the outer boiler must be drawn 
off first or both boilers drained at the same time. This is accom- 
plished by the proper placing of valves, as shown in Plate 53, Fig. A. 

CUT-OFFS 

Under some conditions street pressure will not at all times of 
the day raise water to the highest floor which is intended to be sup- 
plied by city pressure. It then becomes necessary to use a device, 
known as a cut-off, by which tank pressure may be supplied to the 
floor. Fig. B shows the simplest form. 

The two cold-water pressures are connected together, also the 
two hot-water pressures. 

By opening the two upper valves and closing the two lower ones 
the floor may be provided with tank pressure, and vice versa. The 



HEADERS 339 

objection to the use of this crude form of cut-off is that confusion 
may resuh from the use of valves. 

In Fig. C a patented form of cut-off is shown, in which this 
trouble is not present. By throwing the lever up or down either 
tank or street pressure is turned on. 

HEADERS 

In large hot-water supply systems the cold-water lines connect 
into a header, the hot-water lines into another, and the circulation 
pipes into another. 

This makes the work very systematic and easily cared for. 
Fig. D shows the general arrangement of a header, with its branches, 
each supplied with a shut-off, and each branch also provided with 
a drip connecting into a main drip, the latter emptying into an open 
fixture. 

The same general arrangement of headers, branches, drips, 
valves, etc., may be, and often is, employed to great advantage in 
connection with the hot- and cold-water supply of a residence. 

In connection with high-grade residence work, a very neat and 
artistic piece of work can be performed on these headers by using 
polished brass pipe and fittings, and additional neatness in appear- 
ance may be obtained by bending the pipes at changes in direction, 
instead of performing the work with fittings. Better results can also 
be obtained from this method for the reason that there is less fric- 
tion encountered in smooth bends than in bends made with fittings. 

The employment of these methods is almost a necessity on large 
work, as in such work the supply piping is of such a complex nature 
that it cannot safely be installed other than in the most systematic 
manner. 



Plate LIV 

HOT-WATER SUPPLY FOR LARGE 

BUILDINGS 



//oA l/\/o/-er Sapp/y Plol-eS4. 

for L>OKpe Bui/d/ngs 



* — sPipe ~~*- 



U 



r'9- A 



^ 



e/zz2vz ^ 



I 



r 



^eo/-<z. 



□ 



j=aj 



, ^ 



i?2<^JY 



\' I 



■iT^^ 



t . ' » , < I , , 




1^ 



*\ 



□ 



Ffff. C. 



lT=fl 




^ 



^^^/^ ^'^-^^^^ 



a 






^.^.Heey/er 



*• — ^ 



1 !■ 



77 ^ 



4 



/^/^. ^. i 



IT 



\ 



/ 



1 



□ 




S. 









-ii^ 



, 4-1. 



f 






( 



J 



a 

IS 



p 






jQ)2'aiY^/ 







Js)rorr- 



' <2^<7Ce 

C^2c£ 






I 



r7 



7>^ 



yi4i/ 




n'pr. 



5 



HOT-WATER SUPPLY FOR LARGE BUILDINGS 

In the supplying of hot water for large buildings the boiler is 
generally of the horizontal style, hung by wrought-iron hangers 
from the cellar timbers, although vertical boilers are sometimes used. 
The source of heat for such boilers is generally a special tank heater. 
Live and exhaust steam are also much used by means of steam coils 
placed inside the boiler. A combination often used to advantage 
includes both tank heater and steam coils, the heater being used dur- 
ing the summer and the coils during the winter season, when the 
heating plant of the building is in operation. The use of the tank 
heater and steam coil is seen in Fig. D, Plate 54. 

In addition, special heating devices or auxiliaries are used in 
this work, one of them, known as the P. P. Heater, being shown 
connected to the boiler in Fig. E, and a sectional view of the same 
in Fig. F, Plate 54. As seen from the latter, the device consists 
essentially of three pipes, one inside the other. Cold water is con- 
ducted through the innermost pipe, from which it passes into the 
pipe or tube next outside, this pipe being closed at its end. 

Steam is conveyed into the space between the middle pipe and 
the outer one, thus entirely surrounding the cold water that enters. 

The flow connection is made to the middle pipe, also the draw- 
off connection. It is claimed that the heating of water by means of 
this heater is very rapid, and that even in the form of steam vapor 
it will heat the water more rapidly and in greater quantity than it 
can be heated by a water front with a hot fire. 

The heater may be connected with the steam piping of the 
building, as shown in Fig. E. 

The heater is made in several sizes, ranging from the kitchen- 
boiler size to sizes suitable for large work. The size of hot-water 
boilers naturally depends on the character and use of the building, 
the number of apartments, and number of fixtures supplied with hot 
water. In the case of apartment buildings it is generally a compara- 
tively simple matter to approximate the boiler capacity necessary, 
but in the case of many buildings, experience and judgment are 
necessary in arriving at a proper size. 

343 



344 



MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 



A very common method, and one that is ordinarily a safe one 
to follow, is to estimate about 20 gallons of boiler capacity for each 
full set of fixtures that would commonly require hot water in an 
apartment. These fixtures would include the kitchen sink, wash 
trays, bath tub, and lavatory. If any of these fixtures are omitted, 
or others are added, a due allowance may be made. 

Reckoning on this basis, the following table shows the boiler 
capacity necessary for dififerent numbers of apartments, and the 
standard sizes of boilers having the respective capacities. 

TABLE OF HOT-WATER BOILER CAPACITIES 
No. of Apartments Capacity of Boiler Size of Boiler 

4 100 gals. 



6. 

8. 
10. 
12. 
16. 
20. 
24. 
36. 



120 

180 

215 
250 

365 
430 

575 
720 



22" 


X 


60" 


24" 


X 


60" 


30" 


X 


60" 


30" 


X 


72" 


30" 


X 


84" 


36" 


X 


84" 


42" 


X 


72" 


42" 


X 


96" 



42" X 120' 



Another table which will be found of value is the following, 
which shows the number and size of steam coils necessary for the 
several sizes of hot-water boilers specified in the foregoing table. 



TABLE OF STEAM COILS FOR HOT-WATER BOILERS 
Capacity of Boiler Size and Number of Coils 

100 to 120 gals 4 i-in. pipes. 

180 " 215 " 6 i-in. 

250 " 365 " 6 i>4-in. " 

430 '' 575 " 4 i/2-in- " 

720 " 6 i>4-in. " 

In Figs. A, B, and C, of Plate 54, are shown three different 
methods of installing large hot-water supply systems. 

Of the three systems, probably that shown in Fig. A is least 
satisfactory, for the reason that the supply at different points is less 
evenly heated than in the case of the other two systems. For 



HOT-WATER SUPPLY FOR LARGE BUILDINGS 345 

instance, the hot-water branches taken out of the return will not 
deliver such hot water as those on the flow line. However, the choice 
of a hot-water supply system must often depend upon the character 
and construction of the building to be supplied. All things being 
equal, the overhead system shown in Fig. C will probably do as sat- 
isfactory work as any of the others shown, although the system in 
Fig. B is an excellent one. The latter should be provided at its high 
point with an air vent, while the former needs none. 



Plate LV 

AUTOMATIC CONTROL OF HOT-WATER 

TANKS 



Aut^mahc C^nhr^l 

^f Hot Water Tanks 



Plate 55. 




£ 



¥ 



f5.rt£>.f'*fV/^i^tf1 



<SLLpj:>2y 



^ 






1 

1 






rrt 



/ 



!wa 



^ 



/-/5>./4. 



^ 



jQ)zaphragj^ 



< 



CIcecK 



Ffg- ^' 



^ 



fa CD I 



^<=/ 



yolve 



■^ 






f^te 



-pe/2j^-^— 4j 




<Sieoj2t. 




Fo2i^e 

m 



^ 







AUTOMATIC CONTROL OF HOT-WATER TANKS 

On large work it is essential to satisfactory service to provide 
automatic control for the hot-water tank. On smaller work, also, 
automatic control may be used to advantage. When the supply 
system is under the attention of a painstaking attendant the neces- 
sity of automatic regulation is not so great, but in general constant 
attention to the necessary requirements cannot be depended upon, in 
which case control of the temperature of the hot-water supply by 
automatic means avoids all trouble. 

There are several excellent systems of regulation now on the 
market, two of which are shown in the several illustrations of Plate 
55. Fig. A represents a sectional view of one of these regulators 
for use in connection with boilers heated by kitchen range or special 
tank heater. Fig. B shows this regulator in use in connection with 
a boiler heated by tank heater. The regulator should always be con- 
nected to the flow pipe, and may be in either a horizontal or vertical 
position. In using this regulator, the part B is filled with water 
through the opening D, which is closed by means of a plug. About 
a cupful of water should be drawn out through a small tube, and 
this liquid replaced by an equivalent amount of gasoline. 

The hot water of the flow pipe which passes through C, C, heats 
the contents of B to the temperature of the hot water itself. 

Gasoline has a somewhat lower boiling point than water, and 
will boil just before the water in B and C, C, reaches the boiling 
point. The gasoline in boiling exerts a pressure which is trans- 
mitted through A to a. diaphragm, which in turn, by means of a 
lever, operates the chain which will close the draught damper and 
open the check damper. When the temperature of the water has 
dropped sufficiently, the diaphragm will react, opening the draught 
damper and closing the check. 

The regulator may be set at any convenient point in the flow 
pipe, the only requirement being that it be set so that the plug D 
shall be at the top, in order that it may be filled. 

Fig. C shows the regulation of live and exhaust steam to the 
steam coils when the boiler is to be heated in this way. 

349 



350 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

The regulator is connected into the end of the boiler and about 
three-quarters of the distance up from the bottom. This regulator 
should be set horizontally, with the tube running into the boiler. A 
diaphragm steam valve is placed on the steam-supply pipe, at a point 
between the boiler and the live-steam connection, in order to control 
both live and exhaust steam. City pressure is connected to the regu- 
lator, and thence to the steam valve. Before reaching the regulator 
the water supply is reduced to the proper pressure by a filter. As 
the temperature of the tank water rises, the expansion of the tube 
inside the boiler operates the regulator, which allows the water pres- 
sure to reach and close the steam valve, thus shutting off the supply 
of exhaust steam to the coil. 

When the water cools, the regulator acts in an opposite man- 
ner, the city pressure is shut off, and the water carried away from 
the steam valve through the waste. 

On the live-steam connection the regulating valve is adjusted 
to open at a lower temperature than that usually carried in the 
exhaust-steam pipe. Thus, when the latter falls below its normal 
point, live steam is admitted through the steam valve. 

If a tank heater is also connected to a boiler thus supplied, the 
regulator shown in Fig. B may be used in conjunction with the 
regulating apparatus of Fig. C. 

The regulator of Fig. D is of another make, but working along 
similar lines to the regulator of Fig. C. By means of this regulator 
any desired temperature of the water may be obtained by moving 
the pointer toward " cooler " or " warmer." 

By means of a diaphragm similar to that shown in Fig. B, this 
regulator can be made to control the temperature of hot-water tanks 
heated by tank heaters. 



SUGGESTIONS FOR ESTIMATING PLUMBING 

CONSTRUCTION 



SUGGESTIONS FOR ESTIMATING PLUMBING 

CONSTRUCTION 

It is the belief of the author that a special chapter devoted to 
the subject of the estimating of plumbing work will add to the value 
of this work in the eyes of many of its readers. 

The plumbing fraternity at large are just as careless in their 
estimating of labor and material as those who are connected with 
other lines of construction. The plumber who keeps a close account 
of these things, and knows, when the work is completed, just how 
much he has made or lost, is the exception. It is a fact, indeed, that 
many do not seem to wish to know when a contract has been finished 
at a loss, and it is also a fact that the author has met those who have 
frankly refused 'to figure into their estimate such incidentals as gaso- 
line, screws, putty, freight, cartage, etc., for fear of losing the con- 
tract. This would appear to be a strange thing in a business man, 
for these items represent an expense which must be met just as cer- 
tainly as such items as traps, ferrules, etc. 

On the other hand, many of the successful plumbing firms fol- 
low a very exact system of estimating, and keep a close account of 
all stock and labor used on each contract, thus being able to figure 
exactly the amount of profit or loss on any completed piece of work. 
Many firms, however, while estimating accurately and safely on stock 
and labor items, do not figure any percentage into their contracts to 
cover inside expenses, that is, rent, office expenses, telephone, etc. 
This is a matter of great importance, and consideration or noncon- 
sideration of it often means the success or failure of the firm. Any 
firm doing a construction business must, along certain lines, be 
guided by past experience in estimating certain items. The expense 
of conducting business, which includes the items named above and 
many others, is a matter which must be figured largely by looking 
into those expenses of the past, and from the comparison of this 
amount with the gross amount of business done, the percentage that 
must be allowed for the conducting of business may be arrived at. 
Thus, if it costs a firm $500 to carry on a yearly business of $10,000, 

353 



354 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

the percentage that must be allowed for this item of expense is 5%. 
This is a matter which varies greatly with different firms, some being 
able to conduct business at much less expense than others. 

It is claimed by many firms doing a moderate amount of busi- 
ness that 15% is not too large an allowance for business expenses. 
Instead of giving this as the proper percentage to be added, how- 
ever, it is the opinion of the author that each firm should approximate 
the amount in the manner above mentioned. 

Another important matter is the amount of profit which may 
fairly be charged on contract work. It is a well-known fact to many 
of the readers of this work that at the present time many contracts 
are taken at as low a percentage of profit as 5%. 

When it is considered that, in its anxiety to obtain a contract, 
a firm is willing to take it at this low figure, generally without add- 
ing any percentage for the expense of conducting business or for 
extras that may be overlooked in estimating, it is clear that the 
greater the number of such contracts taken by the firm, the sooner 
they must go into bankruptcy. There are many plumbing concerns, 
it may safely be said, who would be better off if they never took 
contract work, for the losses that must be sustained in this branch 
of their business must be offset by the profits derived from their 
jobbing or repair work, or bankruptcy is their only end. A profit 
of 25% on contract work, according to the author's opinion, is by 
no means too great. It may be said, however, that on large work a 
safe profit of a less amount may be satisfactory. 

It is well understood by the author that these matters must be 
regulated by each individual concern, and it is equally well under- 
stood that if a firm is to carry on a successful and honest business, 
living profits must be secured, and that to secure them no legitimate 
business expense can be shirked in making estimates of cost. 

The first essential in estimate work is a complete and reliable 
form of estimate, the use of which is very necessary, as it is not 
within the power of any man to remember at all times the scores of 
items that should enter a plumbing estimate. The low bidder on 
contract work- is often low because he has forgotten to figure on 
some important item. The writer recalls a firm which secured a cer- 
tain contract and found, when the work was under way, that all the 
water closets — six in number — had been omitted, which meant the 
completion of the work at a loss. The use of a correct estimate 



SUGGESTIONS FOR ESTIMATING 



355 



sheet avoids these troubles. In connection with this subject there is 
shown an estimate sheet which is very satisfactory. In this connec- 
tion, however, it must be stated that it is a difficult matter to con- 
struct an estimate sheet that will please everyone, and that an esti- 
mate sheet entirely satisfactory for one part of the country may not 
answer the purpose of some other section, owing to the great differ- 
ences that may exist in the methods and materials emplo3^ed. If 
unable to secure a satisfactory published form of estimate, one 
arranged to suit individual tastes may be printed at small cost. 









PLUMBING 


ESTIMATE 




Ilade by. 








Sou 


Pipe 


Date 












EX. HEAVY 










STANDARD 






2" 










ft. 2" 

















ft. 2," 






4' 










ft. 4" 






5" 










ft. 5" 






6" 










ft. 6" 






Z" 










ft. 8" 










Fittings 






Traps 




2" 






3'' 




Ar" 


Ys 




2" 






Z" 




A" 


Tees 




2" 






f 




Al' 


TYs 




2" 






f 




4" 


Bends 




2" 






f 




4" 


Hubs 




2" 






f 




4" 


Dbl Hubs 




2" 






f 




4" 


Vent Ts 




2" 






f 




4" 


Vent Caps 




2" 






f 




4" 


Increasers 




2" 






2>" 




4" 


Reducers 




2" 






Z" 




4" 


Offsets 




2" 






f 




4" 


Dbl Ys or Ts 


2" 






f 




4' 


Cl'nouts, T. 


B. or 


Br. 


2" 






f 


4" 


Misc. Fittings 














Hooks 






HangerE 


> 






Clamps 


Caulking Lead 








lb 


IS. 




Oakum 




lbs 


>. 




Gasoline 


gals. 


Roof Flanges 




f 






4" 




5'' 



-// 



6" 



356 



MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 
Galvanized Pipe 



ft. 
ft. 






ft. 

ft. 2 



Y^" 



ft. I " 

ft. 2 I/" 



ft. ^yi" 

ft. 3 " 



Galv. Fittings, Water 
Galv. Fittings, Vent 



Galvanized Fittings 



i%" 



i^ 



U" 



Br. Ferrules 
S & W Cocks 
Valves 
Sill Cocks 
Solder Nipples 
Solder Nipples 
Solder Unions 



V2" 



Fittings 



Fittings 



3/" 

78 



lbs. 

lbs. I " 

Total Lead Pipe 

Solder 



Brass Work 



V2" 









74- 






Brass Pipe 



Brass Tubing 



1V2" 



Lead Pipe 



1V2" 



7/" 



lbs. %" 
lbs. i%" 
lbs. 
lbs. 






i%" 



lbs. %" 
lbs. i%" 
Sheet Lead 

prs. Lead Tacks 



lbs. ^" 
lbs. 2 " 
lbs. 



Water 



Gas Piping, Outlets 

Meter Connections 
Gas 



Range 



Sinks, Iron 



Soapstone 

Brackets 

Traps 


or 


Slate 


Ename 
Bibbs 
Ferrules 

Wash Trays 


1 or Forcelam 
Gaskets 


Legs 
Plugs 




Chain 


Covers 

Traps 


Bibbs 

Ferrules 



SUGGESTIONS FOR ESTIMATING 



357 



Copper 
Boiler Stands 
Sed. Cocks 



H. W. Boilers 

Galv. 
Tubes 
House Tank 



Valves 
Ball Cock and Valve 



Pantry Cocks 
Traps 



Pantry Sinks 



Plugs, Chain, Stays 
Ferrules 



Water Closets 



Tanks Tank Boards 

Brackets Chain & Pull 

N. P. Flush & Supply Pipes 

Ball Cock & Valve 

Clamps Bolts Floor Flanges 

Local Vent & Fittings 2'' 






Seats 

Lead Bends 
N. P. Flanges 
Ferrules 
Floor Slabs 



Bath Tubs 



Bath Cocks 
Waste &. Overflow 
Traps 



Plug & Chain 
N. P. Valves 
Ferrules 



N. P. Supplies 
N. P. Flanges 



Lavatories 



Bowls 

Chain & Stays 

Gaskets 

N. P. Traps 



Cocks 

Clamps 

N. P. Supplies 

N. P. Flanges 



Brackets Plugs 

Traps Ferrules 

N. P. Wastes 
N. P. Valves Marble 



N. P. Flush Pipes 
Traps 



Urinals 

A'alves 
Ferrules 



Tanks 
Marble 



Cocks 
Slate 



Tanks 



Cocks 



Slop Sinks 
Traps 



Ferrules 



358 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

Miscellaneous 



Pumps 
Screws 
Tile Pipe 
Carfare 
Labor 


& F't 


Air Chambers 
Putty 
'gs Carpenter 
Board 
Days, Plumber 

Add for Expense 
" " Profit 

Total Estimate 


Total 


Valves 
Plaster Paris 
Excavating 
Fr't & Cartage 
Helper 

% 
% 







There are several features connected with estimate sheets that 
are worth mentioning. 

In the estimate sheet shown, for instance, such items as traps, 
ferrules, bibbs, etc., are to be found under each fixture. Some may 
prefer to have such items lumped, rather than scattered, but in pre- 
senting in connection with each fixture the items that are needed 
in the installation of that fixture there is possibly less danger of 
omissions. 

Under brass work, however, such items as brass ferrules and 
valves are given, although appearing under the different fixtures. 
This is necessary, as such material as ferrules and valves may be 
used for purposes not identified with any particular fixture. Such 
an item as lead pipe is more conveniently and accurately figured, and 
with less labor, in the lump than under respective fixtures. 

Before being able to figure material accurately and intelligently, 
it is necessary to have a slight understanding at least of architects' 
plans. 

The term " plan " is used in general to designate all architects' 
drawings. Technically, however, a plan is a view looking down 
onto an object, and an elevation is a view looking at the object 
from the front or the side. 

In the case of the flioor plans, they show locations of fixtures and 
pipes, and cellar plans show horizontal measurements of soil piping, 
water piping, etc. 

The front or side elevation of the building, on the other hand, 
shows the distances between floors, from which can be estimated the 
heights of the vertical lines of pipe. 

Architects' plans are never drawn full size, but always at some 



SUGGESTIONS FOR ESTIMATING 359 

standard scale, usually ^4 in. to the foot for small buildings and }i 
in. to the foot for large buildings. 

In order to measure piping from such a drawing, it is neces- 
sary to understand how to use a scale. In the work of an architect 
or engineer, where the object of which drawings are made, is very 
large, it is necessary to show the object on a smaller scale. If the 
scale is % in. to the foot, a quarter inch measured on any of 
the drawings represents one foot in the actual work itself, and if 
the scale is ^ in. to the foot, any measurement of % in. represents 
one foot in the actual work. 

The general custom in estimating material is to estimate the 
soil piping first, and by this is meant the house drain and all its con- 
nections, the stacks and their main vent lines. 

The cellar plan (see Plate 31) is first referred to, and the 
lengths of the several sizes of horizontal piping measured at the 
proper scale. 

If Plate 31 is drawn at a scale of }4> in. to the foot, the straight 
run from outside the cellar wall to the cleanout at the end will be 
found to be 5^ in., representing 45 ft. of 4-in. pipe. 

In the same way the branches, fresh-air inlet, etc., are esti- 
mated, the measurements in ordinary work being made without ref- 
erence to the space taken up by fittings; that is, measurements for 
straight pipe are taken without deducting anything for fittings. 

The excess measurement thus obtained will make a due allow- 
ance for loss in cutting lengths of pipe. If, however, fittings are 
very close together, as in the use of a number of branch fittings for 
a line of water closets, this method of measuring may be modified. 
Attention is next directed to the elevation of the building being fig- 
ured, in order to estimate the lengths of straight pipe in the vertical 
main lines. The points to be considered may be observed from 
Plate 33, which shows an elevation of a plumbing system. 

The vertical lengths may be found by measuring on the eleva- 
tion the distance from the cellar bottom to a point usually 2 ft. above 
the roof. 

If the roof is flat, these lengths will be the same, but in the case 
of pitched roofs, reference to either the front or side elevation will 
show at what point the stack passes through, thus enabling the esti- 
mator to find its length. 

The main vertical vent lines, vertical rain-leader connections, 



36o MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

the vertical part of the fresh-air inlet, and other vertical lines should 
next be measured, and the total lengths of each size of pipe inserted 
in the estimate. 

It is a very good plan to divide each amount of soil pipe, if of 
cast iron, between single- and double-hub pipe, as the latter will be 
found very convenient in many places. 

The next thing in order is the estimating of soil-pipe fittings, 
including main-vent fittings. 

The fittings needed in the cellar on horizontal lines will be evi- 
dent from reference to the cellar plan, which should always show a 
plan of the horizontal cellar work. A rough sketch of the vertical 
lines, both soil, waste, and vent, with their fittings and connections 
into the horizontal lines, will be found very helpful in estimating the 
fittings to be used. The pipes shown in such a sketch may be repre- 
sented by single lines instead of double lines, as in Plate 33. 

Unless designated in such a sketch, the estimating of fittings 
must generally depend upon the picture of the work, at different 
points, which the estimator holds in his mind. While this method 
often results in the omission of fittings, the practical estimator can 
generally, if careful, figure very close to the fittings needed. At the 
same time, very few plumbing systems are estimated which do not 
call for a considerably greater number of fittings when the work is 
actually constructed than was estimated. These extra fittings are 
largely bends and offsets used in getting around obstructions which 
did not appear from the plans or were unnoticed by the estimator. 
Allowance should be made for extra fittings and extra material of 
other kinds. Many practical men claim that the extra stock de- 
manded, over and above that figured in the estimate, will average 
about 5%. 

The fittings should be arranged according to size and character, 
as seen in the estimate form shown. Before leaving this part of 
the work, other materials, such as cleanouts, hangers, clamps, roof 
flanges, oakum, caulking lead, and gasoline should be estimated. 

The estimating of caulking lead is an approximation, but expe- 
rience will enable the estimator to come very close to the true amount. 
This item is very generally estimated offhand, which often comes 
wide of the mark. 

On large work, especially, a definite estimate should be made, 
the following being a reliable method. It is clearly seen that no 



SUGGESTIONS FOR ESTIMATING 



361 



caulked joint will be called for excepting where there is a hub. 
Therefore, estimate one hub for each length of pipe, the number of 
lengths being found by dividing the total lengths of soil pipe by 5. 
In the case of fittings, such as bends, count one hub, tees and Ys 
two hubs, and double fittings three or more hubs, as the case may be. 

In the case of a 4 X 2 Y, one hub would be 4 in. and the other 
2 in. The number of hubs of each size should be added, and the 
amounts multiplied by the weight of lead for the respective size 
of joint. 

The amount of lead used for the several sizes of caulked joints 
is not a definite amount, as different workmen will naturally use 
different amounts. The following table shows weights of lead joints : 

2-in. lead joint i^ lbs. 

3 

zYa 

SYa 
6 

'1/ 



3-in. ' 




4-in. ' 




5-in. ' 




6-in. ' 




7-in. ' 




8-in. ' 




( 





lo-m. 



(I 
il 
(( 
a 



These weights represent ^ lb. for each inch in size of the pipe. 
Many will claim that i lb. to the inch is not too much to figure on. 

The weights of lead found necessary for the different sizes of 
pipe, added together, will give the total amount of caulking lead 
required. 

Oakum is generally estimated offhand. The following table 
will give an idea, however, of the amount of oakum necessary for 
joints of different sizes: 

2-in. lead joint 3 

3-in. 
4-in. 
5-in. 
6-in. 



7-m. 

8-in. 

lo-in. 



3 ft 


. oakum 


4/2 ' 




5 




6y2 ' 




z- T/ ' 




//2 




8^ ' 




9K2 ' 




12 ' 





Such fittings as cleanouts, plugs, and ferrules do not have to be 



362 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

taken into account in estimating caulking lead and oakum, for the 
hubs into which these fittings are caulked have already been counted. 

In the estimating of lead waste and vent pipe it is simply a 
matter of figuring mentally the amount of each size needed; and 
knowing the number of pounds per foot of the various sizes, the total 
weight may be found. It is necessary to know the total weight of 
both waste, vent, and supply pipe if of lead, as this material is sold 
by the pound and not by the foot. In filling out the estimate sheet, 
however, the estimator should be careful to fill out against each size 
the amount of that size necessary, as when it comes to ordering stock 
the number of feet of each size will need to be known. 

A table of weights of lead pipe is necessary to figure this item 
from. The following is a table of safe weights for ordinary work: 

Diameter of Lead Supply Pipe Weight per foot 

^ in lYz lbs. 

>4 " 2 

H " 2y2 " 

M " 3 " 

I " 4 

Diameter of Lead Waste Pipe Weight per foot 

1 in 2 lbs. 

I>4" 2>4" 

T 1/ " ol/ " 

^72 3/2 

2 " 4 " 

4 " 6 " 



In connection with lead pipe, wiping solder should also be fig- 
ured. The number of joints of each size may be quickly estimated, 
and knowing the amount of solder necessary for a joint of each size, 
the total weight of solder may easily be found. It is very customary 
for plumbers to estimate solder according to fixtures — so much for 
a sink, so much for a water closet, etc. In figuring many plumbing 
systems this would be safe if the estimator has a correct idea of the 
amount necessary for each fixture. In work which is out of the 
ordinary run, however, it might not be safe to estimate in this way. 

In getting at the full amount of solder, lead supply-pipe joints 
and connections, flush and supply-pipe joints for water closets, for 
urinals, slop sinks, etc., must be taken into account. 



SUGGESTIONS FOR ESTIMATING 



363 



The amount of solder used per joint of the different sizes is a 
variable quantity, as some workmen make much heavier joints than 
others. It is customary among some estimators to allow one pound 
of solder per joint, regardless of size, including the small supply- 
pipe joints, as well as the large-size waste and vent-pipe joints. This 
might possibly have averaged safely in the days of lead supply work, 
but as work is now generally constructed, a better way would seem 
to be to find by practice the weights of joints of the several sizes, and 
thus make the estimate a close and accurate one. The following 
table may be used as a guide, though undoubtedly varying widely 
from the custom of many workmen: 



Diameter of Pipe. 
Solder per Joint . 



i in. 


fin. 


fin. 


I in. 


ij in. 


ij in. 


2 in. 


Jib. 


I lb. 


I lb. 


I J lbs. 


i^ lbs. 


if lbs. 


2-2J lbs. 



4 m. 
3-4 lbs. 



In the matter of galvanized piping, the number of feet of each 
size should be estimated. 

To find the amount of galvanized supply pipe, brass or lead, 
as the case may be, reference must be made to the cellar and floor 
plans mostly in figuring out horizontal runs, and the elevation re- 
ferred to, to give vertical measurements. The matter of fittings on 
supply work is a difficult matter to estimate in detail, as they are 
numerous, and it is hardly possible to figure on just what fittings 
and the respective amounts of each that are going to be required. 
On such items as these the estimator of experience will often cast 
up the amount in his own mind after a little study of the plans, and 
he may usually come very close to the amount of cost represented in 
the item. 

The preservation of old estimates and complete lists of stock 
used will often allow the estimator to refer to them and get a line 
on work of similar nature which he may be figuring. Galvanized 
vent fittings should be estimated in detail as far as possible, just as 
soil-pipe fittings are estimated. 

Stop cocks, valves, sill cocks, solder nipples, and unions should 
also be estimated as nearly in detail as possible, as an offhand esti- 
mate of material that represents so much cost as these items is not 

a safe thing. 

Gas piping often enters into the plumbing contract. It is some- 
times safe on new work to approximate the cost of the gas piping 



364 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

at so much per outlet. If this can be done it saves considerable labor 
in figuring out the cost of different sizes to be used, fittings, and labor. 

Reference to previous work of similar nature is of much help 
in this connection. Estimating at so much per outlet is not a safe 
method on old work, that is, where gas piping is to be installed in 
an old house. Many plumbers are inclined to estimate old work in 
this way, however, and often suffer loss thereby. 

Water, gas, and range connections are not generally considered 
a part of the general plumbing contract in many sections, but in 
other sections must be included. 

There is little to be said on the matter of estimating fixtures 
and their trimmings. Sizes and list prices may be found in the cata- 
logues of jobbers and manufacturers, and knowing the prevailing 
discount, the net cost may be easily arrived at. Many fixtures, water 
closets, for instance, are often figured complete, that is, instead of 
having to figure the crockery, tank, brackets, chain and pull, etc., in 
detail, a cost price of the entire outfit may be obtained. This is true 
of other fixtures also — lavatories, urinals, etc. 

When so figured, however, the estimator must be careful to note 
any items required in the specifications which are not included in the 
combination price. 

The estimating of marble and slate may often be made very 
easy by the use of the table of contents of marble slabs shown under 
Plate 2. The area found from this table, multiplied by the cost per 
square foot, will give the cost of the marble required. 

Much loss may be sustained if miscellaneous items are not 
given due consideration, items such as carfare, board, cartage, etc. 
In some sections of the country the excavating for pipe trenches, 
etc., and the laying of tile pipe is included in the mason's contract, 
rather than in the plumber's. 

Of much importance to the person who is just entering upon 
the work of estimating, and desirous of general information, is the 
method of carrying out costs against the different items in the esti- 
mate. Nearly all plumbing goods are sold and billed at a discount 
from a list price, and in carrying costs in an estimate on plumbing 
work it is necessary to have not only these list prices, but also the 
prevailing discounts on the different lines of material. It would sys- 
tematize the work of estimating and make it far easier if the esti- 
mator would bring all these lists together in a book of proper size. 



SUGGESTIONS FOR ESTIMATING 



365 



so that when it comes to figuring costs, the Hst price and discount 
on any material whatever may be referred to without having to 
refer to numerous catalogues and lists that may require considerable 
searching for before they can be located. The matter of list prices 
and discounts on such materials as cast- and wrought-iron pipe, 
brass goods, etc., has been systematized to a considerable extent dur- 
ing recent years, and is handled more easily therefore. For instance, 
the lists of standard and extra-heavy cast-iron pipe are so arranged 
now that one discount applies to both grades, whereas formerly there 
was one discount on standard and another on extra-heavy pipe. 

In order to show how the cost of material may be carried out 
on an estimate, it will be pertinent to the subject to show the cost 
figured on a list of soil pipe and a list of soil-pipe fittings. 

In the following list, after the style of pipe or fitting is named, 
is given the list price per foot of soil pipe or the list price per single 
fitting, then the total number of feet of pipe or total number of fit- 
tings reckoned at this list: 



20 ft. 2 in. X. H. C. I. Pipe 

60 " 4 " " " " 

25 " 4 " Standard C. I. Pipe, 

Disc. 25% 



8 2 in. X. H. Bends 
63" 

4 4 
2 4 

6 2 

2 3 



Standard Bends. 
Ys.... 



X 2 in. Standard Ys. . . 

34" Standard Ys 

6 4 " x 2 in. Standard Ys. . . . 

2 4 " X. H. T-Y 

I 4 " X 2 in. X. H. Ys 

24" X. H. Running Traps 
^ 2 " " Inverted Ys . . . 



Disc. 30- 



■5-5% 



List 
$0.35 
.65 
.80 

.40 



$0.50 

•95 

I-I5 
.80 

.90 

1.50 

1 .40 

1 .90 

1 .70 

1 .90 

2. 70 

2.75 
1-25 



$7.00 

32.50 
48.00 
10.00 



$97-50 



$4.00 

5-70 
4.60 
1 .60 

5-40 
3.00 
1 .40 

5-70 

10. 20 

3.80 

2.70 

5-50 
3-75 



$57.35 



Net 



$73.13 



:$36.i 



366 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

As seen from the above, the discount on pipe is taken on the 
total pipe footing, and the discount on fittings is taken on the total 
fittings footing. This is a much less laborious undertaking than the 
taking of the discount on each pipe or fitting, and there is less oppor- 
tunity of error. 

The discounts that are given on certain lines of plumbing mate- 
rial are often very complex, such a discount as 25 — 10 — 5% being 
very common. It will be of interest to beginners in the work of 
estimating to understand the manner in which such discounts are 
figured out. In the first place, if the above-mentioned discount can 
be estimated on $1, the net amount remaining after taking the dis- 
count may be used as a multiplier for that particular discount. 

Thus, when the discount mentioned is deducted from $1 it 
leaves .6413. Now, if a discount of 25 — 10 — 5% is to be applied 
to any amount, $50.35, for instance, the net amount derived can be 
found by multiplying by the multiplier .6413. Thus, $50.35 X 
.6413 ^$32.29 net. Let us see how the net multiplier .6413 -was 
obtained. It is not meant that the three separate discounts, 25, 10, 
and 5% are to be added together. If this were so, the full amount, 
40%, could be given. 

The meaning of the discount 25 — 10 — 5% is that 25% is to be 
deducted from the list price, and from the remainder 10% deducted, 
and from this second remainder 5% deducted. 

This would be a tedious method to apply, and instead of follow- 
ing this practice, the use of a table of net multipliers will be of very 
great value in the saving of time and labor: i.oo X -75 = -75, -75 X 
.90^.675, .675 X .95 = .6413. This series of operations gives the 
multiplier desired, the net amount each time being multiplied by i.oo 
minus the next discount, the multipliers thus being i.oo — .25 = .75, 
I.oo — .10 = .90, I.oo — -05^.95. 

If a published table of discounts cannot be procured, the esti- 
mator may make one to include whatever range of discounts may 
be desired. There are very handy tables published, which show dis- 
counts from 10% up to 85%. These tables are arranged in the fol- 
lowing manner, which may be followed or modified by the estimator 
in working out his own table of discounts: 



SUGGESTIONS FOR ESTIMATING 



367 



Discount — Per Cent 


Decimal Equivalent 


Net Amount or Multiplier 


25- 


•25 


•75 


25 — 2^ 


.2688 


■n^z 


25— 2>^— 2^ 


.2870 


.7130 


25 2l^ 5 


■3053 


.6947 


25— 2>^— 7^ 


.3236 


.6764 


25 2l^ 10 


.3419 


.6581 . 


25 5 


.2875 


.7125 


25 5 2>^ 


.3053 


.6947 


25 5 5 


•3231 


.6769 


25 5— 7K 


.3409 


•6591 


25 5 10 


.3588 


■6413 


25— 7>^ 


•3063 


.6938 


25— 7^— 2>^ 


.3236 


.6764 


25— 7>^— 5 


.3409 


•6591 


25 1% 1% 


.3583 


.6417 


25— 7>^— 10 


•3756 


.6244 


25 10 


•3250 


.6750 


25—10 — 2-% 


•3419 


.6581 


25 10—5 


.3588 


•6413 


25—10—7^ 


•3756 


.6244 


25 — 10 — 10 


.3925 


.6075 


25— 10— 10— 5 


.4229 


•5771 


^1% 


.275 


.725 


27>^— 2>^ 


.2931 


.7069 


27^—2^ 2^ 


.3108 


.6892 



The amounts in the column of decimal equivalents simply show 
the value of the different discounts when reduced to decimals. A 
comparison of decimal equivalents will show that in some cases dif- 
ferent discounts really mean the same thing. 

Thus the discount 25 — 2>^ — 7>4 is of just the same value as 
the discount 25 — 7^ — 2^. 

In connection with the subject of estimating, no attempt will be 
made to give instructions concerning the estimating of labor. The 
author appreciates the fact that this information will be sought fully 
as much as any that has been given, but an attempt at advising the 
figuring of certain amounts of time for certain amounts of work 
will be misleading, and no doubt, if followed, might lead to trouble, 
especially among new estimators of insufficient experience to allow 



368 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

for various dififerent conditions. For instance, the methods of con- 
struction and the choice of material varies considerably in different 
parts of the country, and, furthermore, much depends upon the work- 
men themselves, some doing- a far greater amount of work per day 
than others. Labor is certainly the most difficult item to estimate, 
so many conditions entering into the matter. In many towns and 
cities certain classes of building construction are very general. For 
instance, in certain cities three-flat houses may be universally used, 
while in another two-flat and six-flat houses may be the rule. The 
plumber who has much of such work to do soon learns from experi- 
ence the amount of labor necessary to figure, almost to an hour, and, 
in fact, is often able to give a very close offhand estimate of the 
entire work on such a house after a glance at the plans and specifi- 
cations has assured him of the nature and number of fixtures. The 
estimator that is wise, however, is not usually ready to make a bona 
fide estimate on any system of plumbing without first going over 
the work very carefully, for it needs only a small difference here 
and there to make a considerable total difference. The practice of 
giving offhand final estimates is always to be condemned, as they 
may often lead to trouble later. Moreover, such estimates are un- 
likely to take into account any change in prices of material. 

As already intimated, however, much benefit may be derived 
from reference to lists of stock and labor used on previous work of 
similar style and character to that which is to be estimated. This is 
especially true of such work as is to be found in the regulation line 
of dwellings, flats, and like buildings. The comparisons should not 
be made, by the way, without making due allowance for any change 
in prices that may have come about in the meantime. 

Many plumbing systems, however, cannot be expected to be of 
a similar nature to other work previously constructed by the firm, 
in which case there is little benefit to be derived from a general com- 
parison. Here experience and good judgment must be called into 
service. 

The employer or estimator who is properly posted in his busi- 
ness will know how many feet of soil pipe of different sizes his work- 
men will be able to run in a day, how long he must allow for the 
roughing-in of each fixture under the methods followed by his men 
and under the ordinances of his city, and how long it will take to do 
the finishing work on each fixture. By thus figuring the work in 



SUGGESTIONS FOR ESTIMATING 369 

detail the total should be arrived at with a sufficient amount of 
exactness. 

In the matter of estimating labor, especially, there is no one who 
can do it so successfully as the man who is working at the trade and 
is fully acquainted with modern methods of construction. 

If a systematic account is to be kept of all labor and material 
used on work, it is necessary to use some form of time card, from 
which an exact account of all labor and stock items may be obtained. 
Such a form is shown, in connection with this subject, below. 

This form is very convenient, although some employers may 
prefer a different style. 

The item of labor is given in detail on the front of the card, 
and stock used in connection with that particular job, No. 73, may 
be noted on the reverse side. The main part of the card is to be 
handed to the workman, while the stub is torn off at the perforated 
line and retained in the office until the card is turned in. 



370 



MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 



WM. GREENE & CO. 



Given to 



, 190 



No. 73 



WM. GREENE & CO. 

No. 73 

Ordered by 

Ordered for 

Street and No 

Wants 



STOCK USED. 



WORK COMMENCED. 
Date Hour. 



COMPLETED. 
Date Hour 

Hour work 



Hours contract 



Made out by- 
Charged by . . 



t{ It 



Front Side. Reverse Side. 

TIME AND STOCK CARD. 



SUGGESTIONS FOR ESTIMATING 



371 



As previously stated, if the estimator is to perform his work 
easily and intelligently, he must keep thoroughly posted on the cur- 
rent prices of material. In order that this may be done systemat- 
ically many firms now keep run of quotations by means of a card 
system, such a card being seen below, and being placed in the S sec- 
tion of the file. All soil-pipe data should appear on this card, from 
which will be known the latest and most favorable discount on that 
material. In carrying out such quotations it is well to use a private 
system of characters to represent figures. A similar card should be 
used for each class of material, as lead pipe, traps, etc. 



SOIL PIPE. 

The J. B. S. Co.— N. Y. City— Jan. i 25-10 

M. & B. Co. — Boston — Feb. 2 30 

The J. B. S. Co.— N. Y. City— Mar. 3 25-10-5 

R. M. & C. Co.— Phila.— Mar. 15 25-10 



In conclusion it may be said that for many reasons, and because 
of many varying conditions, the subject of estimating is one of the 
most difficult subjects connected with the plumbing trade upon which 
to give instruction. 

To a certain extent, definite information, data, and advice may 
safely be given, but beyond that, success in accurate and intelligent 
estimating must result chiefly from a knowledge gained by experi- 
ence, from the application of good judgment, and from systematic 
methods, the latter being of as much importance as any other factor. 



INDEX 



/ 



INDEX 



Adjustable slop-sink trap, 49. 
Air admitted to trap seal, 75. 
Air chambers, use of, 212. 
Air, circulation of, in sewers, 102. 

through vent system, go. 
Air, lifeless, in bath rooms, 144. 
Air-lock caused by double trapping, 78. 

on siphon supply systems, 317. 

prevented by fresh-air inlet, 104. 
Air pressure for smoke test, 171. 
Air pump to relieve water siphon, 317. 
Air supply for plumbing system, 84. 
Air test, 167, 170. 

objections to, 170. 

pressure for, 170. 
Air valve on hydraulic ram, 312. 
Alum for sand filtration, 220. 
Animal charcoal for filters, 219. 
Apartment buildings, hot-water supply for, 
211. 

plumbing for, 211, 217. 
Architects' plans, reading and use of, 358. 
Architects' scale, use of, 359. 
Areas, drainage of, 109. 
Artificial draft for local vents, 125. 
Asphaltum, pipes coated with, 87. 
Atmospheric pressure, amount of, 314. 
Attic storage tank, 287. 

supply for, 287. 
Attic tank, 238. 
Automatic cellar drainer, 112. 
Automatic control of hot-water tanks, 349. 
Automatic flushing, 245. 

of range water closets, 44. 

of urinals, 257. 
Automatic flush tank, action of, 245. 

construction, location of, etc., 246. 
Automatic flush tanks for public toilet 

rooms, 234. 
Automatic sewage ejector, 277, 278. 

action of, 278. 

advantages of, 280. 

for large work, 280. 

for marine work, 282. 



Automatic sewage ejector, for public sew- 
age, 281. 

proper size of, 281. 
Automatic sewage lift, 277, 278. 

action of, 278. 

advantages of, 280. 

for large work, 280. 

for marine work, 282. 

for pubHc sewage, 281. 

proper size of, 281. 

venting of, 279. 
Automatic sewage siphons, 305. 

action of, 306. 

use of, 305. 
Automatic siphon for range water closets, 

44. 
Automatic sump tank, 280. 

action of, 280. 
Automatic tank regulators, 211. 
Automatically flushed urinals and slop 
sinks, 246. 



B 



Back pressure on trap seals, 74. 
Back pressure, relief of, 84. 
Backs for urinals, 50. 
Back-water valve, use of, iii. 
Bacteria, action of, in filtration, 219. 

action of, in septic tank, 299. 

action of, on sewage, 304. 

in soil, 294. 
Ball-cock floats, 40. 
Ball-cocks, 39. 

requirements of, 40. 
Bar sinks, connection of, 66. 
Basins for lavatories, sizes of, 24. 
Baskets, wire, for roof pipes, 91. 
Bath establishments, construction of floors 
and walls of, 237. 

plumbing for, 237. 
Bath-room connections, 131, 137, 138, 143, 

149. 
Bath-room fixtures, 139, 150. 
Bath rooms, 131, 137, 143, 149. 

cleanliness of, 131. 



375 



376 



INDEX 



Bath rooms, lighting of, 144. 

tiling of, 139. 

ventilation of, 144. 
Bath traps, 77. 

cleanouts for, 31, 138. 
Bath tub, 31. 

connections for, 31. 

construction of, 31. 

drum trap for, 31, 81, 149, 

sizes of, 31. 

to enamel, 31. 

trimmings for, 32. 
Bedfordshire lip urinal, 50. 
Bending brass pipe, 202. 
Bends in fresh-air inlet, 104. 
Bends, quarter, for circuit vents, 188. 

for deep-seal traps, 109. 

use of, 89. 
Bidet, 51. 

connections for, 51. 

mixer for, 51. 

supplies for, 51. 
Bi-transit waste, 32. 
Blind vent, 157. 
Blow-off from boilers, 66. 
Boilers, double, 337. 

connections for, 338. 

construction of, 337. 

cut-offs for, 338. 

drainage of, 338. 

expansion pipes on, 337. 

purpose of, 337. 

supply for, 337. 

where used, 337. 
Boilers, large horizontal, supporting of, 

343- 
Boilers, large horizontal, use of, 343. 

Boilers, hot-water, automatic control of, 

349; . 

capacities of, 344. 

heating of by steam, 343. 

proper size of, 213, 343. 

steam coils for, 344. 
Boilers, range, for residences, 211. 

heating of, 328. 

materials for, 192, 211. 

size of, 211. 
Bone-black for filtering purposes, 219. 
Bowls for lavatories, sizes of, 24. 

patent overflow, 24. 
Branch vents, 84. 

running of, 184. 
Brass and cast-iron pipe connections, 88. 
Brass and wrought-iron pipe connections, 



Brass cleanouts, 162. 
Brass drainage fittings, 202. 
Brass ferrules, use of, 88. 

use of, on Durham system, 272. 

weights and sizes of, 272. 
Brass flap valve, use of, 62. 
Brass floor flange, use of, 119. 
Brass for drainage purposes, 274. 
Brass .pipe, joints on, 202. 

to bend, 202. 

use of, 92, 192. 

use of, on waste and vent work, 201. 

weights of, 202. 
Brass pipe vises, use of, 202. 
Brass pipe wrenches, use of, 202. 
Brass soldering nipples, weights and sizes 

of, 272. 
Brass work, estimating of, 363. 

of poor quaHty, 158. 
Brewery drainage, 62. 
Brick piers to support piping, 95. 
By-pass, 77, 157. 



Capillary action on trap seals, 74. 

Caps for roof pipes, 91. 

Cast iron, action of electrolysis on, 267. 

for drainage purposes, 274. 
Cast-iron and brass pipe connections, 88. 
Cast-iron and lead pipe connections, 88. 
Cast-iron and wrought-iron pipe connec- 
tions, 88. 
Cast-iron pipe, 87. 

coating of, 87, 162. 

connection of wrought-iron pipe into, 
262. 

for house sewer, 197. 

for wastes, 137. 

joints on, 87. 

life of, 264, 265. 

supporting of, 95. 

underground, 162. 

use of, 92. 

weights of, 87. 
Cast-iron sinks, sizes of, 17, 18. 
Catch basin, cellar, trap for, in. 

construction of, 241. 

for cellar drain, in. 

for kitchen waste, 56, 57. 

for rain water, 327. 

for refrigerator rooms, etc., 62. 

for stable waste, 241. 

for subsoil drainage, in. 



INDEX 



377 



Caulked joints, 87. 

weights of, 88, 361. 
Caulking lead, estimating of, 360. 
Cellar bottom, grading of, iii. 

gutters in, iii. 
Cellar drain, no. 

catch basin for, in. 

into house drain, 196. 

trap for, in. 
Cellar drainage, disposal of, 112. 
Cellar drainer, 112. 

action of, 112. 

amount of water raised by, 112. 

height to which it will raise, 112. 

location of, 112. 

supply pipes for, 112. 

water pressure for, 112. 
Cements for marble, 24. 

for slate and soapstone, 19. 
Centrahzing of plumbing, 143. 
Centrifugal pump for raising sewage, 277. 
Cesspools, 293. 

banking and turfing of, 295. 

combination tight and leeching, 293, 

295- 

connected to sewers, 293. 

displaced by septic tanks, 299. 

forms of, 293. 

fresh-air inlet of, 294. 

leeching, 293, 294. 

location of, 289, 294. 

manner of entering drains into, 296. 

prohibited for tenement houses, etc., 
208. 

rain water into, 295. 

supporting vents from, 96. 

tight, 293, 294. 

trapping of, 294. 

use of, in cities, 296. 

venting of, 285, 294. 
Change in direction of pipes, cleanouts at, 

164. 
Charcoal, animal, for filters, 219. 
Child's bath, 32. 

connections of, 32. 
Chilling of main trap seal, 104. 
Chimney connections of local vents, 127, 

.156. 
Circuit vents, 187. 

construction of, 187. 

for line of water closets, 242. 

for pubhc toilet rooms, 187, 234. 

quarter bends on, 188. 
Circulation of air in sewers, 102. 

through vent system, 90. 



Circulation of hot water, 328. 
Circulation work, advantages of, 213. 
Cistern filters, 325. 

action of, 326, 327. 

catch basin for, 327. 

construction of, 326, 327. 
Cisterns, for storing rain water, 288. 

size of, 289. 
Cleanout cover, trap vent through, 82. 
Cleanout joints, 163. 
Cleanout screws, material of, 162. 
Cleanouts, 162. 

brass, 162. 

depending on putty joints, 156. 

end, 162, 163. 

for traps, 77. 

gaskets for, 163. 

ground-joint, 163. 

iron body, 162. 

on bath traps, 31, 77, 138. 

on drainage pipes, 89. 

on drum traps, 164. 

on horse stall connections, 69. 

on house drain, 162. 

on local vent flue connection, 127. 

on main trap, 104, 105, 162, 163. 

on rain leaders, 163. 

on refrigerator wastes, 65. 

on sink waste, 55. 

on slop sinks, 49. 

on traps, location of, 164. 

on traps under floors, 77. 

on vents, 76, 164. 

size of, 163. 

submerged, 82, 83, 164. 

threads for, 163. 
Coating of cast-iron pipe, 87. 
Coils, steam, for hot-water boilers, 344. 
Cold-air box, distance of fresh-air inlet 

from, 104. 
Combination cocks, 33. 
Combination sink and wash tray, 19. 
Comfort stations, ventilation of, 127. 
Compressed air for sewage ejectors, 278. 
Compression system, 220. 
Compression work, 33. 

advantages of, 212. 
Concealed piping, testing of, 167. 
Condensation in vent pipes, 84, 184. 

care of, 89. 

drainage of, 90. 
Condensing tank, use of, 66. 
Contact filter beds, 302, 305. 
Contagion carried by local vents, 125. 
Continuous venting, 76, 175. 



378 



INDEX 



Continuous venting, advantages of, 175, 
180. 

economy of, 180, 183. 

for apartment houses, 179. 

for groups of fixtures, 176. 

for lines of lavatories, 233. 

for two-floor work, 179. 

for two lines of fixtures, 183. 

from special fittings, 201. 

of lavatories, 23, 176. 

of lines of fixtures, 271. 

of lines of urinals, 256. 

of S trap, 81, 83. 

of water closets, 187. 
Corrosion of drainage pipes, 264. 

vent pipes, 264. 
Cost, estimating of, 364. 
Cottage house, plumbing for, 191. 
Country house, water supply for, 325. 

hot- water supply for, 328. 
Country plumbing, 285. 
Courts, etc., of tenement houses, drainage 

of, 208. 
Courtyards, drainage of, 109. 
Cowls for roof pipes, 91. 
Crazing of water closets, 119. 
Cup joints, 88. 
Cut-offs for double boilers, 338. 

D 

Dead end, 155. 

Deep-seal trap, use of, 109. 

for rain leaders, 207. 
Deflector for grease trap, 56. 
Direct-pressure ball-cocks, 40. 
Discharge chamber of the septic tank, 301. 
Discounts on plumbing goods, 364. 

table of, 367. 
Domestic filter, construction of, 218. 
Double-acting force pump, 315. 
Double-acting hydraulic ram, 314, 325. 
Double apartment buildings, plumbing for, 
217. 

continuous venting for, 179. 
Double boilers, 337. 

connections for, 338. 

construction of, 337. 

cut-offs for, 338. 

drainage of, 338. 

expansion pipes on, 337. 

purpose of, 337. 

supply for, 337. 

where used, 337. 
Double fittings, venting from, 223. 
Double hubs, use of, 89. 



Double-hub pipe, use of, 89. 
Double testing plug, 169. 
Double trapping, 78, in, 156. 
Double T-Y, use of, 89. 
Draft for local vents, 125. 
Drain tile inside cellar, 156. 

for subsoil drains, in. 
Drainage system, separate, for each house, 

103. 
Drainer, cellar, 112. 
Draw-offs, drainage from, 66. 
Drinking fountains, 228. 

in toilet rooms, 228. 
Drip pan for attic storage tank, 288. 

for refrigerator, 61. 
Drip sink for refrigerator, 61. 
Drips from boilers, 66. 
Driven wells, remarks on, 316. 

system of, 315. 
Drum trap, 81. 

cleanouts on, 164. 

connections for, 81. 

for bath tub, 31, 81, 149. 

for country plumbing, 285. 

for laundry tubs, 19, 82. 

for refrigerator, 61. 

obstructions in, 82, 83. 

serving two or more fixtures, 82. 

siphonage of, 81. 

stoppage of, 82. 

un vented, 81. 

vent of, through cleanout cover, 82. 
Durham system, 261. 

advantage of, 97, 262. 

compared with common system, 261. 

defects of, 262, 263, 264, 265. 

fittings for, 261, 262. 

floor flange for, 120. 

for greenhouses, 263. 

joints on, 261, 262. 

urinals on, 257. 

use of soldering nipples and brass 
ferrules on, 272. 

used in high buildings, 263. 

water-closet floor connections for, 
271, 272. 

work of, 271. 



Earthenware pipe for drains, no. 
for house sewer, 197. 
inside cellar, 156. 
joints on, 197. 
prohibition of, 196. 



INDEX 



379 



Ejector, automatic sewage, 277, 278. 

action of, 278. 

advantages of, 280. 

for large work, 280. 

for marine work, 282. 

for public sewage, 281. 

proper size of, 281. 

venting of, 279. 
Electricity, thawing of pipes by, 331. 
Electrolysis, action of, 266. 

cause of, 266. 

destruction of pipes by, 265. 

general remarks on, 268. 

of cast iron, 267. 

remedy for, 267. 
Elevators, hydraulic, drainage from, 66. 
Enamelled lavatories, 23. 
Enamelling for bath tub, 31. 
End cleanouts, 162, 163. 
Engine house, plumbing for, 241. 

floor drains for, 241. 
Estimate sheet, form of, 355. 

remarks on, 358. 
Estimating of brass work, 363. 

caulking lead, 360. 

cost, 364. 

fixtures and trimmings, 364. 

gas piping, 363. 

labor, 367. 

lead pipe, 362. 

marble and slate, 364. 

miscellaneous items, 364. 

pipe and fittings, 359. 

plumbing construction, 353. 

supply pipe, 363. 

wiping solder, 362. 
Evaporation decreased by continuous vent- 
ing, 176. 

of rain leader trap seals, 207. 

of trap seals, 74, 77, no. 
Excavations, drainage of, 112. 
Exhaust steam for heating hot-water tanks, 

343- 
Exhausts, drainage connections of, 66. 

Expansion pipes on double boilers, 337. 

Exposed surfaces of water closets, 115. 

Exterior lighting desirable, 144. 

Extra heavy soil pipe, 87. 



Factories, automatic flushing for, 245. 
regulation of plumbing in, 208. 
waste and soil lines for, 242. 



Factor}' lavatories, 247. 

plumbing, 241. 

toilet rooms, 241. 

toilet rooms, floors for, 242. 

toilet rooms, lighting of, 242. 

toilet rooms, ventilation of, 241, 242. 

wash sinks, 242, 247. 
Fans, ventilation by use of, 128, 227. 
Ferrule connections included in roughing, 

161. 
Ferrules, brass, use of, 88. 

weights and sizes of, 272. 
Filter beds, contact, 302, 305. 

primary, 302, 305. 
Filtered water supply, 217. 

for swimming pool, 238. 

open gravity tank for, 220. 

overhead tank for, 220. 

pressure tank for, 220. 

storage of, 220. 
Filtering materials, 219. 
Filters, animal charcoal for, 219. 

care of, 218. 

cleansing of, 219. 

for hotels, restaurants, hospitals, etc., 
218. 

for rain water, 289. 

gravity, use of, 218. 

pressure, construction of, 219. 

pressure, use of, 218. 
Filters, cistern, 325. 

action of, 326, 327. 

construction of, 326, 327. 
Filtration of water, 217. 

for commercial purposes, 217. 

of sewage, 304. 

through the soil, 294. 

two forms of, 217. 
Final test, the, 167. 
First test, the, 167. 
Fittings, brass drainage, 202. 

estimating of, 359. 

extra, allowance of, 360. 

for Durham system, 261. 

special, for underground sewage pur- 
ification systems, 304. 
Fittings, special waste and vent, 38, 143, 
201. 

venting from, 223. 
Fixture vents, requirements of, 84, 184. 
Fixture wastes, long, 162. 
Fixtures, estimating of, 364. 

for bath rooms, 139, 150. 

groups of, continuous vents for, 176. 

in cellar, 201. 



38o 



INDEX 



Fixtures, porcelain, use of, 139. 

Flanges, roof, 91. 

Flap valve, use of, 62, 65. 

Flat buildings, refrigerator drainage for, 

205. 
Flexible wooden sink mat, 18. 
Floats for ball-cocks, 40. 
Floor connections for Durham system, 271, 
272. 

for water closets, 37, 119. 

putty, 119. 
Floor drains for bath establishments, 237. 

for engine house, 241. 

for ice houses, refrigerator rooms, 
etc., 62. 

for laundries, etc., 62. 

for public toilet rooms, 227. 

for stables, 241. 

flushing of, 109. 

flushing rim, 237. 

into house drain, 196. 

into surface sewer, no. 

size of, 109. 

trapping of, no. 

traps for, 109. 
Floor flange, brass, use of, 119. 

for Durham system, 120. 
Floor slabs for urinals, 256. 

setting of, 33. 
Floor timbers, cutting of, 133. 
Floors for factory toilet rooms, 242. 

public toilet rooms, 227. 
Flues, local vent connections into, 127. 
Flush pipe for water closet, 37. 
Flush tank, automatic, action of, 245. 

size, construction, location, etc., 246. 
Flush tanks, concealing of, 234. 

for slop sink, 50. 

for water closet, 37. 

for water closets of public toilet 
rooms, 234. 
Flushing, automatic, 245. 
Flushing of floor drains, 109. 

of range water closets, 44. 

of water closets, 115. 
Flushing-rim floor drains, 109, 237. 

slop sinks, 49. 

type of fixtures for public toilet rooms, 

234- 
urinals, 50, 256. 
water closets, etc., 119. 
Flushing valves, 37. 
concealed, 234. 
for slop sinks, 43, 251. 
for urinals, 43, 251, 252, 257. 



Flushing valves for water closets, 43, 251. 

necessary pressure for, 251. 

operation of, 251. 

sizes of connections for, 251 

storage tanks for, 251, 252. 

under direct pressure, 251. 

under tank pressure, 251. 

use of, 251. 
Foot bath, 32. 

connections of, 32. 
Force pump, use of the, 287. 

double-acting, 315. 
Foul-air ducts for public toilet rooms, 227. 
Freezing of main trap seal, 104. 

protection of pipes against, 321. 
Fresh-air ducts for public toilet rooms, 227. 
Fresh-air inlet, 84, 104. 

bends in, 104. 

carried underground, 105. 

connection of, 104. 

distance from windows, etc., 104. 

errors in, 157. 

for cesspool trap, 294. 

for sewage tank, 278. 

not for drainage, 104. 

of underground trap, 106. 

opening of, 104. 

protection of end of, 104. 

purpose of, 104. 

should not be omitted, 155. 

size of, 105. 

through foundation, 105. 
Frost in roof pipes, 91. 
Frost-proof water closets, 70. 
Frozen water pipes thawed by electricity, 

331- 
Fuller work, 33, 212. 



Gaskets for cleanouts, 163. 

Gas mains destroyed by electrolysis, 265. 

Gas piping, estimating of, 363. 

Gas, sewer, in plumbing system, loi. 

Glass floats, 40. 

Grading of cellar bottom, in. 

of pipes, 88. 
Gravity filters, construction of, 218. 

use of, 2t8. 
Gravity water supply, 286. 
Grease, collection of, in pipes, 57. 

collection of, in main trap, 104. 

entering sinks, 55. 

in sewage, 55. 



INDEX 



381 



Grease traps, 55. 

deflector for, 56. 

material for, 56. 

underground, 56. 

water jacket for, 56. 
Greenhouses, Durham system for, 263. 
Grit chamber of septic tank, 299. 
Ground-joint cleanouts, 163. 
Groups of fixtures, continuous vents for, 

176. 
Gutter for shower bath, construction of, 

237-. 
for urinals, 256. 
in cellar bottom, in. 



H 



Hair-felt to protect pipes from freezing, 321. 
Hangers, sizes of, 96. 
Headers, construction of, 339. 

use of, on supply work, 214, 339. 

use of, 95. 
Heated air, action of, 123, 126. 
Heater, the P. P., 343. 
Heating systems, drainage from, 66. 
Hoar frost in roof pipes, 91. 
Hooks, use of, 95. 
Hoppers, long, use of, 70. 
Horizontal boilers, large, supporting of, 343. 

use of, 343. 
Horizontal piping, cleanouts on, 163. 
Horse stall, plumbing of, 69. 
Horse trough, connections for, 70. 

construction of, 70. 
Hotel sink, 55. 

Hot water, circulation of, 328. 
Hot-water boilers, automatic control of, 349. 

capacities of, 344. 

proper size of, 343. 

steam coils for, 344. 
Hot-water heating systems, drainage of, 66. 
Hot-water supply for apartment buildings, 
211. 

country house, 287, 328. 

large buildings, 343, 344- 

office buildings, 211. 
Hot-water tanks, automatic control of, 349. 

size of, 213. 
House drain, 195. 

cleanouts on, 162. 

connections into, 106, 196. 

main stack at end of, 191. 

material for, 196. 

overhead, 112. 



House drain, running of, 195, 201. 

size of pipe for, 201. 
House sewer, 195. 

cast-iron pipe for, 197. 

connections into public sewer, 198. 

extent of, 197. 

material for, 197. 

size of pipe for, 201. 
House tank, use of, 213. 
House trap, loi. 

advantages of, 103, no. 

cleanouts on, 104, 105, 162, 163. 

connection at, 196. 

for tenement houses, 103. 

freezing of, 104. 

in large cities, 103. 

object of, 10 1. 
, objections to, 102. 

on country systems, 286. 

outside of foundation, 106. 

setting of, 105. 

stoppage of, 104. 
Hubs, double, use of, 89. 
Hydraulic elevators, drainage from, 66. 
Hydraulic engines, action of, 313. 

waste of water by, 313. 

work done by, 313. 
Hydraulic ram, double-acting, 314, 325. 
Hydraulic rams, 311. 

air valve on, 312. 

connections for, 311. 

drive pipe of, 313. 

force pipe from, 313. 

head of supply to, 312, 313. 

operation of, 311. 

source of supply for, 311. 

use of, 287. 

waste of water by, 313. 

waste valve of, 312. 

work done by, 313. 



Ice boxes, connections for, 62. 
Ice houses, drainage of, 62. 
Increase of pipes through roof, 90, 155. 
Increasers, forms of, 90. 

use of, 91. 
Indirect-pressure ball-cocks, 40. 
Infection through untrapped plumbing sys- 
tem, 103. 
Inspection of the plumbing system, 172. 
Internal partitions in traps, 74. 
Iron-body cleanouts, 162. 



382 



INDEX 



Jacket, water, for grease trap, 56. 
Joints, caulked, weights of, 88. 

cup, 88. 

on cast-iron pipe, 87. 

on local vent pipes, 126. 

overcast, 88. 



rust, 88. 



K 



Keyboard, use of, 214. 
Kitchen sinks, 17. 

connections for, 17. 

construction of, 17, 18. 

for hotels, etc., 17. 

hot- water supply for, 17. 

setting of, 17, 18. 

sizes of, 17. 

waste for, 161. 
Kitchen waste, catch basin for, 56. 



Labor, estimating of, 367. 
Laundry drainage, 62. 
Laundry tubs, 18. 

connections for, 19. 

construction of, 18. 

drum trap for, 19, 82, 

in cellars, 205. 
Lavatories, 23. 

connections for, 23. 

connections for group of, 271. 

construction of, 23. 

continuous venting of, 23, 176. 

double batteries of, 229, 233. 

for factories, 247. 

lines of, continuous venting for, 233. 

marble slabs for, 24. 

shower for, 32. 

S trap for, 133. 

trimmings for, 32. 
Lavatory bowls, setting of, 24. 

sizes of, 24. 
Lead and cast-iron pipe connections, 88. 
Lead bend, connections into, 131, 156. 

connection of, 37. 
Lead, connections without use of, 149. 

caulking, estimating of, 360. 

plumbing without use of, 271. 

sheet, weights of, 192. 

when not to be used as waste, 137. 



Lead joints, caulked, 87. 

extra, allowance for, 88. 

weights of, 361. 
Lead pipe, decrease in use of, 184. 

estimating of, 362. 

light weights of used, 158. 

objections to, 137. 

sags in, 162. 

supporting of, 162. 

use of, 92. 

use of, on small work, 191. 

weights of, 192, 362. 
Lead supply pipe, weights of, 192. 
Lead waste pipes, advantages of, 273. 

objections to, 273. 

weights of, 192. 
Lead work, displacing of, 137. 

light material used on, 192. 
Leader pipes, cleanouts on, 163. 

connections of, 196. 

outside of house, 106. 

size of, 198. 
Lift-force pump, action and construction 

of, 315- 
Lift pump, action and construction of, 315. 
Lifts, automatic sewage, 277, 278. 

action of, 278. 

advantages of, 280. 

for large work, 280. 

for marine work, 282. 

for public sewage, 281. 

proper size of, 281. 

venting of, 279. 
Lifts, water, drainage from, 66. 
Lighting, exterior, desirable, 144. 

of bath room, 144. 

of factory toilet rooms, 242. 

of toilet rooms, 228. 
Lip urinal, 50, 256. 

flushing rim for, 119. 
Live steam for heating hot-water tanks, 343. 
Local vents, 83, 123. 

action of, 123, 124. 

chimney connections of, 127. 

connections of, with flues, 127. 

contagion carried by, 125. 

draft for, 125. 

for bath rooms, 144. 

for range water closets, 45. 

for slop sinks, 49. 

for urinals, 255. 

grading of, 155. 

joints on, 126. 

material for, 126. 

pitch of, 126. 



INDEX 



3^3 



Local vents, poor work on, 156, 157. 

purpose of, 123. 

required in unlighted and unventi- 
lated toilet rooms, 124. 

running of, 126. 

sizes of, 125. 

special, on water closet, 234. 

two systems of, 125. 

use of, in public toilet rooms, 246. 
Local vents, main, area of, 127. 

sizes of, 126. 
Lodging houses, regulation of plumbing in, 

207. 
Long hoppers, use of, 70. 
Loop vents, 188. 

for lines of water closets, 242. 

sizes of, 188. ■ 
Low-down tank, 43. 
Low-down water closet, 43. 

siphon form for, 118. 
Low-pressure steam-heating systems, drain- 
age from, 66. 



M 



Main local vents, area of, 127. 
Main soil pipe, vent connection into, 90. 
Main stack at end of house drain, 191. 
Main traps, loi. 

advantages of, 103, no. 

cleanouts on, 104, 105, 162, 163. 

connection at, 196. 

for tenement houses, 103. 

freezing of, 104. 

in large cities, 103. 

object of, loi. 

objections to, 102. 

on country systems, 286. 

outside of foundation, 106. 

setting of, 105. 

stoppage of, 104. 

use of two, 197. 
Main vents, 84. 

connections of, 90, 184. 

in high buildings, 223. 

into stack, 155. 

not required, 138. 

undesirable connection of, gi. 
Main waste pipe, vent connection into, 90. 
Manholes, purpose of, 102. 
Manure to protect pipes from freezing, 321. 
Marble cements, 24. 
Marble, cleaning of, 145. 

decrease in use of, 139. 

estimating of, 364. 



Marble, for lavatories, 24. 
Marble floor slabs, setting of, t,7,. 
Marble slabs for lavatories, 24. 

table of contents of, 25. 
Mechanical devices in water closets, 115. 

for vents, 175. 
Mechanical seals in traps, 74. 
Mechanical ventilation, 127. 
Mixer for bidet, 51. 
Momentum affects trap seal, 74. 

N 

Nickel-plated suppHes, 33. 

Non-siphonable traps, 73. 

use of, 149. 



O 



Oakum, amount of, for caulked joints, 361. 

estimating of, 361. 
Obstructions in drum traps, 82, 83. 
Odors in toilet rooms, 24. 
Ofl&ce buildings, hot-water supply for, 211. 

plumbing for, 223. 
Offset water closets, use of, 118. 
Offsets in stacks, 89. 
Oil of peppermint for testing, 171. 
Open gravity tank, 220. 
Open plumbing, advantages of, 119, 131. 
Overcast joints, 88. 
Overflows, cleaning of, 145. 

connection of, 77. 

for swimming pools, 238. 

from attic tanks, 287. 

from tanks, 62. 
Overhead house drain, 112. 

piping, support of, 95. 

tank, use of, 220. 



Painting of soil pipe, 145. 

Pan water closet, objections to, 115. 

Pantry sink, 25. 

connections for, 25. 

construction of, 25. 

setting of, 25. 
Partitions for stalls in toilet rooms, 228. 

for toilet rooms, construction of, 208. 

for urinals, 50. 
Patent overflow bowl, 24. 
Paved courts, drainage of, 109. 
Pedestal urinal, 257. 



384 



INDEX 



Peppermint, mixture of, for testing, 171. 
Peppermint test, 167. 

objections to, 171. 
Pipe connections, various, 88. 
Pipe-supporting fittings, 95. 
Pipes, pitch of drainage and vent, 88. 

supported by piers, 95. 

thawing of, by electricity, 331. 

to protect against frost, 321. 
Piston pumps for raising sewage, 278. 
Pitch of pipes, 88. 

Plans, architects', reading and use of, 358. 
Plugs, double-testing, 169. 

testing, 168. 
Plumbing, inspection of, 172. 

testing of, 167. 
Plunge bath, change of water in, 237. 

connections for, 237. 

construction of, 237. 

filtered water for, 238. 
Plunger water closets, objections to, 115. 
Pneumatic water supply, 309. 

advantages of, 310. 

applications of, 309, 310. 

operation of, 309. 

pressure from, 310. 

tanks for, 309, 310. 
Poor practices in plumbing, 155. 
Porcelain, cleaning of, 145. 

fixtures, use of, 139, 150. 

for filtering purposes, 219. 

lavatories, 23. 

urinals, 256. 
Practices, poor, in plumbing, 155. 
Pressure filters, construction of, 219. 

use of, 218. 
Pressure for air test, 170. 

for smoke test, 171. 

for water test, 169. 
Pressure supply system, 213. 
Pressures, water, table of, 169. 
Prices of plumbing material, 371. 
Primary filter beds, 302, 305. 
Profit on plumbing construction, 354. 
Provisions, drainage of rooms for storage 

of, 62. 
Public toilet rooms, automatic flushing for, 

_ 245- 
circuit vents for, 187, 234. 
concealed work in, 233. 
drinking fountains in, 228. 
floor drains for, 227. 
floors of, 227. 
flush tanks in, 234. 
flushing-rim type of fixtures for, 234. 



Public toilet rooms, lavatories for, 229. 

lighting of, 228. 

local vent in, 246. 

partitions in, 228. 

plumbing for, 227, 233. 

range water closets in, 228. 

urinals for, 255. 

ventilation of, 127, 227. 

water closets for, 234. 
Pumping by windmill, 318. 
Pumps, 314. 

centrifugal, for raising sewage, 277, 
278. 

double-acting force, 315. 

for lifting sewage, 277. 

lift, action and construction of, 315. 

lift-force, action and construction of, 

315- 
operated by windmills, 318. 
piston, for raising sewage, 278. 
suction, action of, 314. 
Putty floor connections, 119. 

Q 

Quarter bends for deep-seal traps, 109. 

on circuit vents, 188. 

use of, 89. 
Quick-closing work, disadvantages of, 212. 



R 



Rain leaders, 205. 

cleanouts on, 163. 

connected to house drain, advan- 
tages of, 207. 

connections for, 196. 

deep-seal traps for, 207. 

evaporation of traps on, 207. 

exposed, 206. 

how run, 206. 

inside, 206. 

into street gutters, 206. 

into surface house drain, 206. 

into surface sewer, no. 

material for, 206. 

outside of house, 106. 

size of, 198, 205, 206. 

two or more connected together, 206. 

use of traps on, 205. 
Rain water, catch basin for, 327. 

filtering of, 289. 

impurities in, 325. 

into cesspools, 295. 



INDEX 



385 



Rain water, purification of, 326. 

storage of, 288, 325, 327. 

storage tanks for, 328. 
Rain-water filters, action of, 326, 327. 

construction of, 326, 327. 
Rain-water separators, 289. 
Ram pit, waste from, 313. 
Rams, hydraulic, 311. 

air valve on, 312. 

connections for, 311. 

double-acting, 314, 325. 

drive pipe of, 313. 

force pipe from, 313. 

head of supply to, 312, 313. 

operation of, 311. 

source of supply for, 311. 

use of, 287. 

waste of water by, 313. 

waste valve of, 312. 

work done by, 313. 
Range boilers for residences, 211. 

heating of, 328. 

material for, 192, 211. 

size of, 211. 
Range water closets, 44. 

in public toilet rooms, 228. 

objections to, 44. 
Reaming of ends of wrought-iron pipe, 261. 
Recessed drainage fittings, 261. 
Refrigerator drainage for fiat buildings, 205. 
Refrigerator drip sink, 61. 
Refrigerator lines, 65. 

connections into, 65. 
Refrigerator rooms, drainage of, 62, 
Refrigerator traps, 65. 
Refrigerators, 61. 

connections for, 65. 

drip pan for, 61. 

errors in connections of, 157. 
Regulating cylinder for windmill, 311. 
Regulators for tanks, 211. 
Residences, plumbing for, 201. 

range boilers for, 211. 
Restaiu-ant sink, 55. 
Roof connections, 91. 
Roof flanges, 91. 
Roof, fresh-air inlet through, 105. 

overflow onto, 62. 

size of pipes through, 155. 
Roof pipes, escape of gases through, loi. 

frost in, 91. 

requirements of, 91. 

support of, 96. 

use of caps and cowls on, 91. 
Roof vents, 84. 



Roughing-in, 161. 
Roughing test, 167. 

preparations for, 168. 
Roughing, work included in, 161. 
Running of soil pipe, 95. 
Rust in vent system, 90, 91. 
Rust joints, 88. 



S traps, 73, 75. 

cleanouts for bath, 138. 

continuous vents for, 81. 

for country plumbing, 285. 

for lavatories, 133. 

forms of, 76. 

use of, 175. 
Safe for attic storage tank, 288. 
Safe wastes, connection of, 62. 
Sand for filtering purposes, 219. 
Sawdust to protect pipes from freezing, 321. 
Scale, architects', use of, 359. 
Scale in vent system, 90, 91. 
Schools, automatic flushing for, 245. 
Scouring action of S-traps, 76. 
Seal of traps, 73, 74. 

causes affecting, 74. 

evaporation of, no, 176. 
Seat vent, 123. 

Self-cleansing factory sink, 247. 
Separate drainage system for each house, 

103. 
Separate waste entrances for fixtinres, 131, 

132, i37> 138- 
Separators, rain-water, 289. 
Septic tank, 299. 

action of, 299. 

action of bacteria in, 299. 

construction of, 299. 

discharge chamber of, 301. 

displaces cesspools, 299. 

disposal of contents of, 301. 

final disposal from, 302. 

light, air, and warmth of, 299. 

size of, 299. 

use of, 299. 

venting of, 285. 
Service pipes destroyed by electrolysis, 265. 



frozen, thawed by electricity, 



u. 



Setting of lavatory bowls, 24. 

marble floor slabs, 33. 
Setthng chamber of septic tank, 299. 
Sewage below sewer level, disposal of, 277. 

filtration of, through soil, 302. 

hfting of, 277. 



386 



INDEX 



Sewage below sewer level, pressure neces- 
sary to raise, 279. 

underground, disposal of, 302. 
Sewage ejector, automatic, 277, 278. 

action of, 278. 

advantages of, 280. 

for large work, 280. 

for marine work, 282. 

for public sewage, 281. 

proper size of, 281. 

venting of, 279. 
Sewage lifts, automatic, 277, 278. 

action of, 278. 

advantages of, 280. 

for large work, 280. 

for marine work, 282. 

for public sewage, 281. 

proper size of, 281. 

venting of, 279. 
Sewage pumps, use of, 277. 
Sewage siphons, automatic, 305. 

action of, 306. 

use of, 305. 
Sewage system, surface, rain leaders into, 

206. 
Sewer gas in plumbing system, loi. 
Sewer level, disposal of sewage below, 277. 
Sewers, circulation of air in, 102. 

cesspools connected to, 293. 

house sewer connections into, 198. 

ventilation of, 102. 
Sheet lead, weights of, 192. 
Shellac for painting pipes, 145. 
Shower bath, 32. 

connections for, 32. 

construction of, 32. 

waste from, 237. 
Shower for lavatory, 32. 
Sink, bar, connection of, 66. 
Sink, cast-iron, sizes of, 17. 
Sink, drip, for refrigerator, 61. 
Sink for discharge of cellar drainer, 112. 
Sink, hotel or restaurant, 55. 
Sink, kitchen, 17. 

connections for, 17. 

construction of, 17, 18. 

for hotels, etc., 17. 

hot- water supply for, 17. 

setting of, 17, 18. 

waste for, 161. 
Sink mat, flexible wooden, 18. 
Sink, pantry, 25. 

connections for, 25. 

construction of, 25. 

setting of, 25. 



Sink, slop, 49. 

automatic flushing of, 247. 

connections for, 49. 

flush tank for, 50. 
Sink, soda fountain, connection of, 66. 
Sink, stall, 69, 241. 
Sink, vegetable wash, 18. 

construction of, 18. 
Sinks, wash, for factories, 242, 247. 
Siphon, action of, 75. 

automatic, for range water closets, 
44. 

for automatic urinal, 247. 

water raised by, 316. 
Siphonage applied to the water closet, 117. 

in un vented plumbing systems, 229. 

of drum traps, 81, 83. 

of traps, 74, 138. 

of traps, prevention of, 176. 

of unvented traps, 149. 

of water-closet traps, 38. 

prevented by venting, 75. 

water supply by, 316. 
Siphonic influences on traps, 39. 
Siphonic water supply, 286, 316. 
Siphon- jet urinal, 257. 
Siphon- jet water closet, 115. 
Siphon water closet, 43, 115. 

for low-down style, 118. 
Siphons, automatic sewage, 305. 

action of, 306. 

use of, 305. 
Sitz bath, 32. 

connections for, 32. 
Slabs, floor, setting of, 33. 
Slabs, marble, for lavatories, 24. 

table of contents of, 25. 
Slate, cement for mending, 19, 

estimating of, 364. 

for urinals, 50. 
Slate factory sink, 247. 
Slate urinals, 256. 

flushing of, 256. 
Slop hopper, waste-preventive, 50. 
Slop sink, 49. 

automatic flushing of, 247. 

connections for, 49. 

flush tank for, 50. 

flushing rim for, 119. 

flushing valves for, 251. 

local venting of, 123, 124. 

operated by flush valves, 43. 
Smoke, materials to produce, 171. 
Smoke machine, 171. 
Smoke test, 167. 



INDEX 



38: 



Smoke test, advantages of, 172. 

air pressure for, 171. 

connections for, 171. 
Soapstone, cement for mending, 19. 
Soda fountain sinks, connection of, 66. 
Soil pipe, 87. 

changes in direction of, 89. 

connections for, 87. 

definition of, 87. 

extra hea%y, 87. 

for factories, 242. 

measuring of, 359. 

painting of, 145. 

running of, 95. 

size of, 90. 

standard, 87. 

supported on tiled floors, 234. 

supporting of, 95. 
Soil pipe stacks in high buildings, size of, 

223. 
Soil pipe stoppers, 168. 
Soil vents, 84. 

definition of, 138. 
Solder, wiping, amount for different joints, 

363- . 

estimating of, 362. 
Soldering nipples, weights and sizes of, 272. 

use of on Durham system, 272. 
Special waste fittings, 38. 
Stable drains, no. 
Stable waste into catch basin, 241. 
Stables, floor drains for, 241. 

plumbing for, 69, 70, 241. 
Stacks, alignment of, 89. 

in high buildings, size of, 223. 

main, at end of house drain, 191. 

offsets in, 89. 

running of, 133. 

sizes of, 90. 

testing of, 169. 

through roof, 89. 
Stall sink for stables, 69, 241. 
Standard soil pipe, 87. 
Standards for soil pipe, 234. 
Standing overflow for horse trough, 70. 
Steam coils for hot- water boilers, 211, 343, 

344- 
Steam for automatic sewage hfts, 280. 

heating of boilers by, 343. 
Steam-heating systems, drainage from, 66. 
Steel and iron, differences between, 264. 
Steel pipe, hfe of, 263, 264, 265. 
Stone for filtering purposes, 219. 
Stoppers, soil pipe, 168. 
Storage tanks, 238. 



Storage tanks, attic, 287. 

construction of, 238. 

covered, 238. 

for flushing valves, 251, 252. 

for rain water, 328. 

supply for, 238. 

supporting of, 238. 
Submerged cleanouts, 82, 83, 164. 
Subsoil drainage, in. 

catch basin for, in. 

disposal of, 112. 
Subsoil drains, construction of, in. 

drain tile for, in. 

grading of, in. 

into surface sewer, no. 
Suction of sewage pump, 278. 
Suction pipes, lead used for, 273. 
Suction pump, action of, 314. 
Sump tank, automatic, 280. 
Supplies, nickel-plated, 33. 
Supply for double boiler, 337. 

hot water, for large buildings, 343. 
Supply pipe, estimating of, 363. 

for cellar drainer, 112. 

large hot water, 344. 

material for, 192. 
Supply systems, headers for, 214. 

street pressure, 213. 

tank pressure, 213. 
Supply tanks, 238. 
Supporting of roof pipes, 91, 96. 

soil pipe, 95. 
Surface sewage system, rain leaders into, 

206. 
Surface sewers, no. 
Surface venting, 123. 
Swimming pool, change of water in, 237. 

connections for, 237. 

construction of, 237. 

filtered water for, 238. 



Tank overflow, 62. 

Tank-pressure system of supply, 213. 

Tank regulators, 211. 

Tanks, attic storage, 287. 

automatic flush, action of, 245. 

automatic sump, 280. 

condensing, use of, 66. 

flush, concealing of, 234. 

hot water, automatic control of, 349. 

low-down, 43. 

open gravity, use of, 220. 



388 



INDEX 



Tanks, overhead, use of, 220. 

septic, 299. 

size of, 213. 

storage, for flushing valves, 251, 252. 

venting of, 285. 
Tanks, capacity of, to find, 319. 

for double boiler, 337. 

for pneumatic water supply, 309, 
310. 

for storage and supply, 238. 

for storing rain water, 328. 
Tapped fittings, use of, go. 
Tar, pipes coated with, 87. 
Tees, use of, on drainage system, 89. 

wrong use of, 155. 
Tell-tale, use of, 287. 

Tenement houses, drainage of yards, courts, 
and areas of, 208. 

main trap used in, 103. 

regulation of plumbing in, 207. 

ventilation of toilet rooms of, 208. 
Testing of concealed piping, 167. 

high stacks, 169. 

old work, 167. 

plumbing system, 167. 

plumbing system in sections, 169. 
Testing plugs, 168. 

double, 169. 
Tests, air, 167. 

advantages of, 170. 

objections to, 170. 

pressure for, 170. 

final, 167. 

first, 167. 

forms of, 167. 

peppermint, 167, 171. 

peppermint, objections to, 171. 

purpose of, 167. 

roughing, 167. . 

roughing, preparations for, 168. 

smoke, 167, 171. 

smoke, advantages of, 172. 

smoke, connections for, 171. 

water, 167. 

water, by whom made, 168. 

water, pressure of, 169. 

water, when applied, 161. 
Thawing pipes by electricity, 331. 
Tiling of bath-rooms, 139. 
Timbers, cutting of, 133. 
Time card, 369, 370. 

Toilet apartments of tenement houses, ven- 
tilation of, 208. 
Toilet rooms, lighting of, 228. 

for factories, iloors for, 242. 



Toilet rooms for factories, lighting of, 242. 

for factories, ventilation of, 242. 

for factories, 242. 

odors in, 24. 

public, automatic flushing for, 245. 

pubhc, circuit vents for, 187. 

public, concealed work in, 233. 

public, floor drains for, 227. 

public, floors of, 227. 

pubhc, partitions in, 208, 228. 

public, plumbing for, 227, 233. 

public, urinals for, 255. 

public, use of lavatories in, 229. 

public, use of local vent in, 246. 

public, use of range water closets in, 
228. 

water closets, underground, disposal 
of waste from, 277. 

water closets, ventilation of, 123, 124, 
127, 227. 
Toilet soaps, odors from use of, 144. 
Trap, definition of, 73. 

for line of shower baths, 237. 

serving two fixtures, 82, 131, 132. 
Traps, adjustable for slop sink, 49. 

cleanouts for, 77. 

deep-seal, for rain leaders, 207 

deep-seal, use of, 109. 

drum, cleanouts on, 164. 

drum, connections for, 8t. 

drum, for bath tub, 81, 149. 

drum, for country plumbing, 285. 

drum, for laundry tubs, 82. 

drum, for refrigerators, 61. 

drum, obstructions in, 82, 83. 

drum, siphonage of, 81, 83. 

drum, stoppage of, 82. 

drum, unvented, 81. 

fixture, cleaning of, 145. 

for bath tubs, 31, 77. 

for cellar drain, iii. 

for floor and yard drains, 109. 

for refrigerators, 65. 

for various fixtures, sizes of, 77. 

formed by sags in lead pipe, 162. 

grease, 55. 

half-S, venting of, 175. 

house, loi. 

house, advantages of, 103, no. 

house, cleanouts on, 104, 105, 162, 
163. 

house, for tenement houses, 103. 

house, freezing of, 104. 

house, in large cities, 103. 

house, object of, loi. 



INDEX 



389 



Traps, house, objections to, 102. 

house, outside of foundation, 106. 
house, setting of, 105. 
house, stoppage of, 104. 
how set, 77. 

internal partitions in, 74. 
location of cleanouts on, 164. 
main, loi. 

main, advantages of, 103, no. 
main, connection at, 196. 
main, for tenement houses, 103. 
main, in large cities, 103. 
main, object of, loi. 
main, objections to, 102. 
main, on country systems, 286. 
main, outside of foundation, 106. 
main, setting of, 105. 
main, stoppage of, 104. 
mechanical seals in, 74. 
non-siphonable, 73. 
non-siphonable, use of, 149. 
objections to venting of, 175. 
prevention of siphonage of, 176. 
rain leader, cleanouts on, 163. 
requirements of, 73. 

S, 73- 

S, cleanout for, 138. 

S, for country plumbing, 285. 



S, for lavatories. 



'■do- 



S, siphonage of, 138. 

S, siphonic influences on, 39. • 

S, stoppage of vents of, 175. 

S, under floors, 77. 

underground, cleanouts on, 163. 

unvented, siphonage of, 149. 

use of, on rain leaders, 205. 

use of S, 175. 

the water-closet, 115. 
Trapping of fixtures, errors in, 156. 

floor and yard drains, no. 

rain leaders, 106. 
Trap cleanouts submerged, 82, 83. 
Trap seals, causes affecting, 74. 

definition of, 73. 

evaporation of, 74, 77, no. 

evaporation of decreased, by contin- 
uous venting, 176. 

of rain leader traps, evaporation of, 
207. 

of water closet, 115. 
Trap vents, requirements of, 84, 184. 
Trench work, 198. 
Trimmings for baths, 32. 

for lavatories, 32. 

fixture, estimating of, 364. 



Trough, horse, 70. 

Trough urinal, 257. 

Tubs, laundry, 18. 

Two-flat house, plumbing for, 205. 

Two-floor work, continuous venting for, 179. 

T-Ys, use of, 89, 155. 

U 

Underground cast-iron pipe, 162. 

disposal of contents of septic tank, 
302. 

drain pipe, how run, 198. 

grease traps, 56. 

piping destroyed by electrolysis, 265. 

plumbing systems, subsoil drainage 
of, 277, 280. 

purification of sewage, 302. 

toilet rooms, disposal of waste from, 
277. 

traps, cleanouts on, 163. 

wrought-iron pipe, 162. 
Unvented plumbing systems, siphonage in, 

229. 
Urinals, 50. 

automatic flushing of, 257. 

automatically flushed, 246, 256. 

connections for, 50. 

connections for group of, 271. 

continuous venting of, 256. 

floor slabs for, 256. 

flushing rim, 256. 

flushing valves for, 251, 252, 257. 

for pubhc toilet rooms, 255. 

gutters for, 256. 

lip, 256. 

lip, flushing rim for, 119. 

local venting of, 123, 124, 255. 

materials for connections of, 273. 

on Durham system, 257. 

operated by flush valves, 43. 

partitions and backs for, 50. 

pedestal, 257. 

porcelain, 256. 

setting of, 50. 

siphon-jet, 257. 

slate, 256. 

slate for, 50. 

trough, 257. 

waste-preventive, 50. 



Vacuum formed in cellar drainer, 112. 
Valve waste, connections for, 214. 
Valve water closets, objections to, 115. 



39° 



INDEX 



Vegetable wash sink, i8. 

construction of, i8. 
Vent, main lines of, in high buildings, 223. 
Vent not required for water closet, 138. 
Vent through cleanout cover, 82. 
Vent system, corrosion of piping of, 264. 

rust, scale, and condensation in, 90, 
91. 
Vents, blind, 157. 

branch, 84. 

branch, running of, 184. 

circuit and loop for lines of water 
closets, 242. 

circuit, construction of, 187. 

circuit, for pubHc toilet rooms, 187. 

circuit, quarter bends on, 188. 

cleanouts on, 76, 164. 

for Durham system, 261. 

loop, 188. 

sizes of, 188. 

main, 84. 

main, connection of, 90, 184. 

main, not required, 138. 

main, materials for, 92, 184. 

mechanical devices for, 175. 

pitch of, 184. 

soil and waste, definitions of, 138. 

stoppage of, 175. 

trap, requirements of, 84. 

various forms of, 83. 
Ventilation by use of fans, 128. 

mechanical, 127. 

of bath room, 144. 

of comfort stations, 127. 

of factory toilet rooms, 242. 

of public toilet rooms, 127, 227. 

of sewers, 102. 

of tenement-house toilet rooms, 
208. 

of toilet rooms, 123. 

requirements for, 124. 
Venting, 73. 

circuit, 187. 

circuit, in public toilet rooms, 234. 

continuous, 175. 

continuous, advantages of, 175, 180. 

continuous, economy of, 180, 183. 

continuous, for apartment houses, 
179. 

continuous, for groups of fixtures, 
176. 

continuous, for lavatories, 176. 

continuous, for line of fixtures, 271. 

continuous, for lines of lavatories, 
233- 



Venting, continuous, for lines of urinals, 
256. 

continuous, for S trap, 81, 83. 

continuous, for two-floor work, 179. 

continuous, for two lines of fixtures, 
183. 

continuous, for water closets, 187. 

continuous, from double fittings, 
223. 

continuous, objections to, 175. 

of cesspools, 285, 294. 

of condensing tank, 66. 

of fixtures at distance from main 
vent, 184. 

fixtures at distance from stack, 137. 

of half S trap, 175. 

of lines of water closets, 187, 188, 
242. 

of S traps, 76. 

of septic tanks, 285. 

of sewage ejectors, 279. 

of slop sink, 49. 

of water closets, 38, 223. 

of water closet from crockery, 155. 

of water-closet trap, 143. 

poor practices in, 156. 

practical requirements of, 83, 184. 

prevents siphonage, 75. 
Vertical pipes, running of, 133. 

support of, 96. 
Vertical stacks, running of, 89. 
Vises for brass pipe, use of, 202. 
Vitreous chinaware for water closets, 

118. 
Vitrified earthen pipe for drains, no. 



W 



Wash-down water closet, 115, 116. 
Wash-down siphon water closet, 117. 
Washout water closet, 115, 116, 117. 
Wash sinks for factories, 242. 
Wash trays, 18. 

connections for, 19. 

construction of, 18. 

drum trap for, 19, 82. 

in cellars, 205. 
Waste and vent fittings, special, 201. 
Waste connections, cleaning of, 145. 

separate entrance of, into stack, 131, 

132, 137. 138. 
Waste fittings, special, 143. 



INDEX 



391 



Waste pipe, definition of, 87. 

main, measuring of, 359. 

size of, 90. 
Waste-preventive slop hopper, 50. 

urinal, 50. 
Waste valve of hydraulic ram, operation of, 

312. 
Waste vents, 84, 138. 
Water, natural purification of, 290. 

plumbing system filled with, 169. 

wasted by the hydraulic ram, 313. 
Water closets, 115. 

automatic flush for, 245. 

circuit and loop vents for, 242. 

connections for, 37. 

continuous venting of, 187. 

exposed surface in, 115. 

floor connections for, 37, 119. 

floor connections for Durham system, 
271, 272. 

crazing of, 119. 

flush pipe to, 37. 

flush tank for, 37. 

flush valve for, 37, 43. 

flushing of, 115. 

flushing rim for, 119. 

flushing valves for, 251. 

for pubHc toilet rooms, 234. 

frost-proof, 70. 

in factories, number of, 207. 

in public toilet rooms, flush tanks 
for, 234. 

in tenement houses, etc., number of, 
207. 

local vent a part of, 234. 

local venting of, 123. 

location of, 119. 

low-down, 43. 

material for, 118. 

modern, advantages of, 115. 

no mechanical devices in, 115. 

offset, use of, 118. 

pan, valve, and plunger, 115. 

principal forms of, 115. 

range, 44. 

requirements of, 115. 

siphon, 115, 118. 

siphonage applied to, 117. 

siphonage of, 38. 

siphon-jet, 115. 

trap seal of, 115. 

vented from crockery, 38, 155. 

vented from lead bend, 38. 

vented from T-Y fitting, 38. 

ventilation of, 119. 



Water closets, venting of, 38, 143, 223. 

venting of lines of, 187, 188, 242. 

venting of, unnecessary, 138. 

wash-down, 115. 

wash-down siphon, 117. 

washout, 115, 116. 

waste from, 37. 

water jet applied to, 117. 

when unnecessary to vent, 205. 
Water jacket for grease trap, 56. 
Water jet applied to water closet, 117. 
Water lifts, drainage from, 66. 
Water mains, destroyed by electrolysis, 
265. 

frozen, thawed by electricity, 331. 
Water pipe, estimating of, 363. 
Water pressures, table of, 169. 
Water supply by siphonage, 286, 316. 

for attic storage tanks, 287. 

for country systems, 286, 325. 

for double boilers, 337. 

gravity, 286. 

pipes, material for, 192. 

pneumatic, 309. 
Water test, 167. 

by whom made, 168. 

pressure of, 169. 

when applied, 161. 
Weight of piping of plumbing system, 

96. 
Wells, driven, 315, 316. 

for windmill pumping, 319. 

forms of, 290. 

location of, 289. 
Wheel pits, drainage of, 112. 
Windmills, regulating cylinder for, 311. 

pumping by, 318. 

wells for, 319. 
Windmill pumps, 318. 
Windows, distance of fresh-air inlet from, 

104. 
Wiping solder, amount for different joints, 

363- , 
estimating of, 362. 
Wire baskets for roof pipes, 91. 
Wooden laundry tubs, 19. 
sinks, 19. 
sink mat, 18. 
Wrenches for brass pipe, use of, 202. 
Wrought-iron and brass pipe connections, 

88. 
Wrought-iron and cast-iron pipe connec- 
tions, 88. 
Wrought-iron drainage pipe, weights of, 
261. 



392 



INDEX 



Wrought-iron pipes, advantage of, 97. 
connection of into cast-iron 

262. 
cutting and reaming of, 261. 
for refrigerator work, 65. 
life of, 263, 264, 265. 
underground, 162. 
use of, 92. 



pipe, 



Y branch, use of, 89, 155. 
Yard drains, 109. 

into surface sewers, no. 

size of, 109. 

trapping of, 109, no. 
Yards, drainage of, 109, 208. 



SCIENTIFIC AND PRACTICAL BOOKS 



PUBUSHED BY 

The Norman W. Henley Publishing Co. 

132 Nassau Street. New York, U. S. A. 

ffi^r^Any of these books will be sent prepaid on receipt of price to any address in the 
world. 

(J^°° We will send FREE to any address in the world our complete Catalogue of Scientific 
and Practical Books. 

Appleton's Cyclopaedia of Applied Mechanics 

This is a dictionary of mechanical engineering and the mechanical arts, fully describ- 
ing and illustrating upwards of ten thousand subjects, including agricultural machinery, 
wood, metal, stone, and leather working ; mining, hydraulic, railway, marine, and military 
engineering; working in cotton, wool, and paper; steam, air, and gas engines, and other 
motors; lighting, heating, and ventilation; electrical, telegraphic, optical, horological, cal- 
culating, and other instruments; etc. 

A magnificent set in three volumes, handsomely bound in half morocco, each volume 
containing over 900 large octavo pages, with nearly 8,000 engraxdngs, including diagram- 
matic and sectional drawings, with full explanatory details. Price Si 2. 00. 

ASKINSON. Perfumes and Their Preparation. A Comprehensive 

Treatise on Perfumery 

Containing complete directions for making handkerchief perfumes, smelling salts, 
sachets, fumigating pastils; preparations for the care of the skin, the mouth, the hair; 
cosmetics, hair dyes, and other toilet articles. 300 pages. 32 illustrations. 8vo. Cloth, 
$3.00. 

BARR. Catechism on the Combustion of Coal and the Prevention of 

Smoke 

A practical treatise for all interested in fuel economy and the suppression of smoke 
from stationary steam-boiler furnaces and from locomotives, 85 illustrations. i2rao. 
349 pages. Cloth, Si. 50. 

BARROWS. Practical Pattern Making 

This is the best treatise on pattern making that has appeared. There is a general 
introduction on pattern making as an art, followed by a section on material and tools, tak- 
ing up subjects like lumber, varnish, hand tools, band saws, circular saws, etc. Then 
follows a section devoted to examples of wood patterns of different types, and one upon 
metal patterns. There is then a section upon pattern-shop mathematics and one upon 
cost, care, and invention. It is indispensable to every patternmaker. Cloth, S2.00. 

BAUER. Marine Engines and Boilers : Their Design and Construction 

A large practical work of 722 pages, 550 illustrations, and 17 folding plates for the 
use of students, engineers, and naval constructors. 

Clearly written, thoroughly systematic, theoretically soimd; while the character of 
its plans, drawings, tables, and statistics is without reproach. The illustrations are care- 
ful reproductions from actual working drawings, with some well-executed photographic 
views of completed engines and boilers. S9.00 net. 

BENJAMIN. Modern Mechanism 

A large octavo volume of 959 pages and containing over 1,000 illustrations dealing 
solely with the principal and most useful advances of the past few years. Issued imder a 
title which exactly describes its contents — "Modern Mech.\nism." The most eminent 
experts have contributed to this volume, and the benefits to be derived from the result of 
their researches and scientific accomplishments are of incalculable value to the man seek- 
ing the highest and most advanced practice in Applied Mechanics. Bound m half moroc- 
co. S5.00. 

BLACKALL. Air-Brake Catechism 

This book is a complete study of the air-brake equipment, including the latest devices 
and inventions used. All parts of the air brake, their troubles and pecuUarities, and a 
practical way to find and remedy them, are explained. This book contains over 1,500 
Questions with their answers, and is completelv illustrated by engra\nngs and two large 
Westinghouse air-brake educational charts, printed in colors. 312 pages. Handsomely 
bound in cloth. 20th edition, revised and enlarged. $2.00. 



Publications of The Norman W. Henley Publishing Co. 

BLACKALL. New York Air-Brake Catechism 

This is a complete treatise on the New York Air-Brake and Air-Signalling Apparatus 
giving a detailed description of all the parts, their operation, troubles, and the methods of 
locating and remedying the same. It includes and fully describes and illustrates the plain 
triple valve, quick-action triple valve, duplex pumps, pump governor, brake valves, re- 
taining valves, freight equipment, signal valve, signal reducing valve, and car discharge 
valve. 20C pages, fully illustrated. $i.oo. 

BOOTH AND KERSHAW. Smoke Prevention and Fuel Economy 

As the title indicates, this book of 197 pages and 75 illustrations deals with the problem 
of complete combustion, which it treats from the chemical and mechanical standpoints, 
besides pointing out the economical and humanitarian aspects of the question. $2.50. 

BOOTH. Steam Pipes: Their Design and Construction 

A treatise on the principles of steam conveyance and means and materials employed in 
practice, to secure economy, efficiency, and safety. A book of 187 pages which should be 
in the possession of every engineer and contractor. $2.00. 

BUCHETTI. Engine Tests and Boiler Efficiencies 

^ This work fully describes and illustrates the method of testing the power of steam 
engines, turbine and explosive motors. The properties of steam and the evaporative 
power of fuels. Combustion of fuel and chimney draft; with formulas explained or practi- 
cally computed. 255 pages; 179 illustrations. $3.00. 

BYRON. Physics and Chemistry of Mining 

For the use of all preparing for examinations in Mining or qualifying for Colliery 
Managers' Certificates. $2.00. 

COCKIN. Practical Coal Mining 

An important work, containing 428 pages and 213 illustrations, complete with practi- 
cal details, which will intuitively impart to the reader, not only a general knowledge of 
the principles of coal mining, but also considerable insight into allied subjects, including 
chemistry, mechanics, steam and steam engines, and electricity. In elucidating the vari- 
ous divisions incorporated in this excellent work, the author has started at the task from 
the very inception, and has ignored all obsolete methods, excepting where they illustrate 
fixed principles or are in touch with the march of modern improvements. The treatise 
is positively up to date in every instance, and should be in the hands of every colliery 
engineer, geologist, mine operator, superintendent, foreman, and all others who are inter- 
ested in or connected with the industry. $2.50. 

FOWLER. Locomotive Breakdowns and Their Remedies 

This work treats in full all kinds of accidents that are likely to happen to locomotive 
engines while on the road. The various parts of the locomotives are discussed, and every 
accident that can possibly happen, %vith the remedy to be applied, is given. The various 
types of compound locomotives are included, so that every engineer may post himself in 
regard to emergency work in connection with this class of engine. 

For the railroad man, who is anxious to know what to do and how to do it under all 
the various circumstances that may arise in the performance of his duties, this book will 
be an invaluable assistant and guide. 250 pages, fully illustrated. $1.50- 

FOW^LER. Boiler Room Chart 

An educational chart showing in isometric perspective the mechanisms belonging in 
a modem boiler-room. The equipment consists of water- tube boilers, ordinary grates 
and mechanical stokers, feed-water heaters and pumps. The various parts of the appli- 
ances are shown broken or removed, so that the internal construction is fully illustrated. 
Each part is given a reference number, and these, with the corresponding name, are given 
in a glossary printed at the sides. The chart, therefore, serves as a dictionary of the boiler- 
room, the names of more than two hundred parts being given on the list. 25 cents. 

GRIMSHAW. Saw Filing and Management of Saws 

A practical handbook on filing, gumming, swaging, hammering, and the brazing of 
band saws, the speed, work, and power to run circular saws, etc., etc. Fully illustrated. 
Cloth, $1.00. 

GRIMSHAW. "Shop Kinks" 

This book is entirely different from any other on machine-shop practice. ^^^^ '^°* 
descriptive of universal or common shop usage, but shows special ways of doing work better, 
more cheaply, and more rapidly than usual, as done in fifty or more leading shops m iMi- 
rope and America. Some of its over 500 items and 222 illustrations are contributed di- 
rectly for its pages by eminent constructors; the rest has been gathered by the author m 
his thirty years' travel and experience. Fourth edition. Nearly 400 pages. Cloth, $2.50. 

GRIMSHAW. Engine Runner's Catechism 

Tells how to erect, adjust, and run the principal steam engines in the United States. 
Describes the principal features of various special and well-known makes of engines. Sixth 
edition. 336 pages. Fully illustrated. Cloth, $2.00. 



Publications of The Norman W. Henley Publishing Co. 

GRIMSHAW. Steam Engine Catechism 

A series of direct practical answers to direct practical questions, mainly intended for 
young engineers and for examination questions. Nearly 1,000 questions with their an- 
swers. Fourteenth edition. 413 pages. Fully illustrated. Cloth, S2.00. 

GRIMSHAW. Locomotive Catechism 

This is a veritable encyclopaedia of the locomotive, is entirely free from mathematics, 
and thoroughly up to date. It contains 1,600 questions with their answers. Twenty- 
fourth edition, greatly enlarged. Nearly 450 pages, over 200 illustrations, and 12 large 
folding plates. Cloth, $2.00. 

HARRISON. Electric Wiring, Diagrams and Switchboards 

A thorough treatise covering the subject in all its branches. Practical every-day 
problems in wiring are presented and the method of obtaining intelligent results clearly 
shown. 270 pages, 105 illustrations. $1.50. 

Henley's Twentieth Century Book of Receipts, Formulas and Processes 

Edited by G. D. Hiscox. A complete work giving ten thousand formulas which will 
be of value to the housewife, the painter, the carpenter, the metal worker, the farmer, the 
soap and candle maker, the photographer, the jeweller, the watchmaker, the electroplater, 
the electrotyper, the tanner, the mechanic, the engineer, and the manufacturer. 900 
pages. $3 .00. 

Henley's Encyclopedia of Practical Engineering and Allied Trades 

Edited by Joseph G. Horner. The scope of this work is indicated by its title, as 
being both practical and encyclopedic in character. AH the great sections of engineering 
practice and enterprise receive sound and concise treatment. 

Complete in five volumes. Each volume contains 500 pages and 500 illustrations. 
Bound in half morocco. Price, $6.00 per volume, or S25.00 for the complete set of five 
volumes. 

HISCOX. Gas, Gasoline, and Oil Engines 

Every user of a gas engine needs this book. Simple, instructive, and right up to date. 
The only complete work on this important subject. Tells all about the running and man- 
agement of gas engines. Full of general information about the new and popular motive 
power, its economy and ease of management. Also chapters on horseless vehicles, electric 
lighting, marine propulsion, etc. 450 pages Illustrated with 351 engravings. Fifteenth 
edition, revised, enlarged, and reset. $2.30 

HISCOX. Compressed Air in All Its Applications 

This is the most complete book on the subject of Air that has ever been issued, and its 
thirty-five chapters include about every phase of the subject one can think of. Beginning 
with a history of the progress that has been made in this ne, it takes i-.p the properties of 
air, gives tables of its volume and weight, both dry and saturated, as well as numerous 
other conditions. Step by step the reader finds how it is used, the various methods of 
compression and apparatus employed, its use in transmitting power, air motors and their 
efficiency, and a host of other information in this connection. Pneumatic tools and their 
uses receive ample attention, as do the sand-blast, pneumatic tube transmission, and other 
applications, such as raising water, ice machines and liquid air, while the air brake and air 
signal also come in for their share. Taken as a whole it may be called an encyclopaedia of 
compressed air. It is written by an expert, who, in its 825 pages, has dealt with the sub- 
ject in a comprehensive manner, no phase of it being omitted. 545 illustrations, 820 
pages. Price, Ss.oo. 

HISCOX. Horseless Vehicles, Automobiles and Motor Cycles, Operated 
by Steam, Hydro-Carbon, Electric, and Pneumatic Motors 

A practical treatise of 459 pages and 316 illustrations for Automobilists, Manufacturers, 
Capitalists, Investors, Promoters, and every one interested in the de\elopmen;, cr.re, and 
use of the Automobile. 

Nineteen chapters. Large 8vo. 316 illustrations. 460 pages. Cloth, $1.50. 

HISCOX. Mechanical Movements, Powers, and Devices 

This work of 400 pages contains 1,800 specially made illustrations with descriptive 
text. It is a Dictionary of Mechanical Movements, Powers, Devices, and Appliances, 
embracing an illustrated description of the greatest variety of Mechanical Movements and 
Devices in any language. A new work on illustrated Mechanics, Mechanical Movements 
and Devices, covering nearly the whole range of the practical and inventive field for the 
use of Machinists, Mechanics, Inventors, Engineers, Draughtsmen, Students, and_ all others 
interested in any way in the devising and operation of mechanical works of any kind. $3.00. 



Publications of The Norman W. Henley Publishing Co. 

HISCOX. Mechanical Appliances, Mechanical Movements and Novelties 

of Construction 

The many editions through which the first volume of "Mechanical Movements" has 
passed i re more than a sufficient encouragement to warrant the publication of a second 
volume of 400 pages, containing 1,000 larger and specially-made illustrations, which are 
more special in scope than those in the first volume, inasmuch as they deal with the pecul- 
iar requirements of the various arts and manufactures, and more detailed in their ex- 
planations, because of the greater complexity of the machinery illustrated and described. 
$3.00. 

HISCOX. Modern Steam Engineering in Theory and Practice 

This book has been specially prepared for the use of the modern steam engineer, the 
technical students, and all who desire the latest and most reliable information on steam 
and steam boilers, the machinery of power, the steam turbine, electric power and lighting 
plants, etc. 450 octavo pages, 400 detailed engravings. $3.00. 

HORNER. Modern Milling Machines: Their Design, Construction and 

Operation 

This work of 304 pages is fully illustrated and describes and illustrates the Milling 
Machine from its early conception to the present time. $4.00. 

HORNER. Practical Metal Turning 

A work covering the modem practice of machining metal parts in the lathe. Fully 
illustrated. $3.50. 

HORNER. Tools for Machinists and Wood Workers, Including Instru- 
ments of Measurment 

A practical work of 340 pages fully illustrated, giving a general description and classi- 
fication of tools for machinists and woodworkers. $3.50. 

Inventor's Manual ; How to Make a Patent Pay 

This is a book designed as a guide to inventors in perfecting their inventions, taking 
out their patents and disposing of them. 119 pages. Cloth, Si. 00. 

KRAUSS. Linear Perspective Self-Taught 

The underlying principle by which objects may be correctly represented in perspec- 
tive is clearly set forth in this book ; everything relating to the subject is shown in suitable 
diagrams, accompanied by full explanations in the text. Price $2.50. 

LE VAN. Safety Valves; Their History, Invention, and Calculation 

Illustrated by 69 engravings. 151 pages. $1.50. 

LEWES AND BRAME. Laboratory Note Book 

A practical treatise prepared for the Chemical Student. 170 pages. Cloth, Si. 00. 

MATHOT. Modern Gas Engines and Producer Gas Plants 

A practical treatise of 320 pages, fully illustrated by 17s detailed illustrations, setting 
forth the principles of gas engines and producer design, the selection and installation of 
an engine, conditions of perfect operation, producer-gas engines and their possibilities, 
the care of gas engines and producer-gas plants, with a chapter on volatile hydrocarbon 
and oil engines. $2.50. 

MEINHARDT. Practical Lettering and Spacing 

Shows a rapid and accurate method of becoming a good letterer with a little practice. 
Oblong. Paper cover. 60 cents. 

PARSELL & WEED. Gas Engine Construction 

A practical treatise describing the theory and principles of the action of gas engines 
of various types, and the design and construction of a half -horse-power gas engine, w ith 
illustrations of the work in actual progress, together with dimensioned working drawings 
giving clearly the sizes of the various details. Third edition, revised and enlarged. Twen- 
ty-five chapters. Large 8vo. Handsomely illustrated and bound. 300 pages. $2.50. 

PERRIGO. Modern Machine Shop Construction, Equipment and Man- 
agement 

The only work published that describes the Modem Machine Shop or Manufacturing 
Plant from the time the grass is growing on the site intended for it until the finished prod- 
uct is shipped. By a careful study of its chapters the practical nian may economically 
build, efficiently equip, and successfully manage the modern machine shop or manufact- 
uring establishmpnt. Just the book needed by those contemplating the erection of 
modern shoo build' ngs, the rebuilding and reorganization of old ones, or the introduction 
of Modem Shop Methods, Time and Cost Systems. It is a book written and illustrated 
by a practical shop man for practical shop men who are too busy to read theories and want 
facts. It is the most complete all-around book of its kind ever published. 400 large 
quarto pages, 225 original and specially-made illustrations. Ss.oo. 



Publications of The Norman W. Henley Publishing Co. 

PERRIGO. Modern American Lathe Practice 

A new book describing and illustrating the very latest practice in lathe and boring 
mill operations, as well as the construction of and latest developments in the manufact- 
ure of these important classes of machine tools. 300 pages, fully illustrated. $2.50. 

REAGAN, JR. Electrical Engineers' and Students' Chart and Hand- 
Book of the Brush Arc Light System 

Illustrated. Bound in cloth, with celluloid chart in pocket. 50 cents. 

SAUNIER. Watchmaker's Hand-Book 

Just issued, 7th edition. Contains 498 pages and is a workshop companion for those 
engaged in watchmaking and allied mechanical arts. 250 engravings and 14 plates. $3.00. 

SLOANE. Electricity Simplified 

The object of "Electricity Simplified" is to make the subject as plain as possible and 
to show what the modern conception of electricity is. 158 pages. Illustrated. Twelfth 
edition. Si. 00. 

SLOANE. How to Become a Successful Electrician 

It is the ambition of thousands of young and old to become electrical engineers. ^ Not 
every one is prepared to spend several thousand dollars upon a college course, even if the 
three of four years requisite are at their disposal. It is possible to become an electrical 
engineer without this sacrifice, and this work is designed to tell "How to Become a Suc- 
cessful Electrician" without the outlay usually spent in acquiring the profession. Twelfth 
edition. 189 pages. Illustrated. Cloth, $1.00. 

SLOANE. Arithmetic of Electricity 

A practical treatise on electrical calculations of all kinds, reduced to a series of rules, 
all of the simplest forms, and invohang only ordinary arithmetic ; each rule illustrated by 
one or more practical problems, with detailed solution of each one. Nineteenth edition. 
Illustrated. 138 pages. Cloth, Si. 00. 

SLOANE. Electrician's Handy Book 

An up-to-date work covering the subject of practical electricity in all its branches, 
being intended for the every-day working electrician. The latest and best authority on 
all branches of applied electricity. Pocketbook size. Handsomely bound in leather, 
with title and edges in gold. 800 pages. s°° illustrations. Price, S3. 50. 

SLOANE. Electric Toy Making, Dynamo Building, and Electric Motor 

Construction 

This work treats of the making at home of electrical toys, electrical apparatus, motors, 
dynamos, and instruments in general, and is designed to bring within the reach of young 
and old the manufacture of genuine and useful electrical appliances. Eighteenth edition. 
Fully illustrated. 140 pages. Cloth, Si. 00 

SLOANE. Rubber Hand Stamps and the Manipulation of India Rubber 

A practical treatise on the manufacture of all kinds of rubber articles. 146 pages. 
Second edition. Cloth. Si. 00. 

SLOANE. Liquid Air and the Liquefaction of Gases 

Containing the full theory of the subject and giving the entire history of liquefaction 
of gases from the earliest times to the present. It shows how liquid air, like water, is 
carried hundreds of miles and is handled in open buckets. It tells what may be expected 
from it in the near future. 365 pages, with many illustrations. Handsomely bound in 
buckram. Second edition. $2.00. 

SLOANE. Standard Electrical Dictionary 

A practical handbook of reference, containing definitions of about 5,000 distinct words, 
terms, and phrases. An entirely new edition, brought up to date and greatly enlarged. 
Gomplete, concise, convenient. 682 pages. 393 illustrations. Handsomely bound in 
cloth. 8vo. S3. 00. 

STARBUCK. Modern Plumbing Illustrated 

A comprehensive and up-to-date work illustrating and describing the Drainage and 
Ventilation of dwellings, apartments, and public buildings, etc. The very latest and most 
approved methods in all branches of sanitary installation are given. Adopted by the 
United States Government in its sanitary work in Cuba, Porto Rico, and the Philippines, 
and by the principal boards of health of the United States and Canada. The standard 
book for master plumbers, architects, builders, plumbing inspectors, boards of health, 
boards of plumbing examiners, and for the property owner, as well as for the workman 
and his apprentice. 300 pages. 50 full-page illustrations. $4.00. 

USHER. The Modern Machinist 

A practical treatise embracing the most approved methods of modern machine-shop 
practice, and the applications of recent improved appliances, tools, and de\dces for facili- 
tating, duplicating, and expediting the construction of machines and their parts. A new 
book from cover to cover. Fifth edition. 257 engravings. 322 pages. Cloth, S2.50. 



Publications of The Norman W. Henley Publishing Co. 

VAN DERVOORT. Modern Machine Shop Tools ; Their Construction, 

Operation, and Manipulation, Including Both Hand and Machine Tools 

An entirely new and fully illustrated work of 555 pages and 673 illustrations, describ- 
ing in every detail the construction, operation, and manipulation of both Hand and Machine 
Tools; being a work of practical instruction in all classes of machine-shop practice. In- 
cluding chapters on filing, fitting, and scraping surfaces; on drills, reamers, taps, and dies; 
the lathe and its tools; planers, shapers, and their tools; milling machines and cutters; 
gear cutters and gear cutting; drilling machines and drill work; grinding machines and 
their work; hardening and tempering; gearing, belting, and transmission machinery ; useful 
data and tables. Fourth edition. $4. 00. 

WALLIS- TAYLOR. Pocket Book of Refrigeration and Ice Making 

This is one of the latest and most comprehensive reference books published on the sub- 
ject of refrigeration and cold storage. It explains the properties and refrigerating effect 
of the different fluids in use, the management of refrigerating machinery and the construc- 
tion and insulation of cold rooms, mth their required pipe surface for different degrees of 
cold; freezing mixtures and non-freezing brines, temperatures of cold rooms for all kinds 
of provisions; cold-storage charges for all classes of goods, ice-making and storage of ice, 
data and memoranda for constant reference by refrigerating engineers, with nearly one 
hundred tables containing valuable references to every fact and condition required in the 
instalment and operation of a refrigerating plant. $1.30. 

WOOD. Walschaert Locomotive Valve Gear 

The only work issued treating of this subject of valve motion. 150 pages, illustrated. 
Cloth $1.50. 

WOODWORTH. American Tool Making and Interchangeable Manu- 
facturing 

A practical treatise of 560 pages, containing 600 illustrations on the designing, con- 
structing, use, and installation of tools, jigs, fixtures, devices, special appliances, sheet-metal 
working processes, automatic mechanisms, and labor-saving contrivances; together with 
their use in the lathe, milling machine, turret lathe, screw machine, boring mill, power 
press, drill, subpress, drop hammer, etc., for the working of metals, the production of in- 
terchangeable machine parts, and the manufacture of repetition articles of metal. $4.00 

WOODWORTH. Dies, Their Construction and Use for the Modem 

Working of Sheet Metals 

A complete treatise of 384 pages and 505 illustrations upon the designing, constructing, 
and use of tools, fixtures, and devices, together with the manner in which they should be 
used in the power press, for the cheap and rapid production of the great variety of sheet- 
metal articles now in use. It is designed as a guide to the production of sheet-metal parts 
at the minimum of cost with the maximum of output. The hardening and tempering of 
Press tools and the classes of work which may be produced to the best advantage by the 
use of dies in the Power press are fully treated. 

The engravings show dies, press fixtures, and sheet-metal working devices, from the 
simplest to the most intricate, and the descriptions are so clear and practical that all metal- 
working mechanics will be able to understand how to design, construct and use them. $3.00. 

WOODWORTH. Hardening, Tempering, Annealing, and Forging of 

Steel 

A new book containing special directions for the successful hardening and tempering 
of all steel tools. Milling cutters, taps, thread dies, reamers, both solid and shell, hollow 
miUs, punches and dies, and all kinds of sheet-metal working tools, shear blades, saws, 
fine cutlery and metal-cutting tools of all descriptions, as well as for all implements of steel, 
both large and small, the simplest and most satisfactory hardening and tempering processes 
are presented. The uses to which the leading brands of steel may be adapted are con- 
cisely presented, and their treatment for working under different conditions explained, 
as are also the special methods for the hardening and tempering of special brands. 320 
pages. 250 illustrations. $2.50. 

WOODWORTH. Punches, Dies and Tools for Manufacturing in Presses 

A work of 500 pages, and illustrntcd by nearly 700 engravings, being an encyclopsedia 
of die-making, punch-making, die-sinking, sheet-metal working, and making of special tools, 
subpresses, devices and mechanical combinations for punching, cutting, bending, forming, 
piercing, drawing, compressing, and assembling sheet-metal parts and also articles of other 
materials in machine tools. $4.00. 

WRIGHT. Electric Furnaces and Their Industrial Application 

This is a book which will prove of interest to many classes of people ; the manufacturer 
who desires to know what product can be manufactured successfully 'n the electric furnace, 
the chemist who wishes to post himself on electro-chemistry, and the student of science 
who merely looks into the subject from curiosity. The book is not soscientific as to be of 
use only to the technologist, nor so unscientific as to suit only the tyro in electro-chemistrjr ; 
it is a practical treatise of what has been done, and of what is being done, both experi- 
mentally and commercially, with the electric furnace. 288 pages. $3.00. 



JAN 9 190? 



